In the Middle Ages, it was believed that society was divided into “those who pray” - the clergy, “those who fight” - knights and “those who work” - peasants. All these classes seemed to be parts of one body. In fact, the hierarchical structure of society that emerged in the Middle Ages was much more complex and interesting.
You will also learn what a real knight should look like and how he should behave.
Subject:Feudal system of Western Europe
Lesson:Feudal society
In the Middle Ages, it was believed that society was divided into “those who pray” - the clergy, “those who fight” - knights and “those who work” - peasants. All these classes seemed to be parts of one body. In fact, the hierarchical structure of society that arose in the Middle Ages was much more complex and interesting. And you will also learn what a real knight should look like and how he should behave.
By the middle of the 11th century. a social system was established in Europe, which modern historians call feudal. Power in society belonged to landowners-feudal lords, secular and ecclesiastical. The vast majority of the population were dependent peasants. The privileges and responsibilities of masters and peasants were formalized by certain customs, written laws and regulations.
Each large feudal lord distributed part of the land with peasants to small feudal lords as a reward for their service, and they swore an oath of allegiance to him. He was considered in relation to these feudal lords lord(senior), and the feudal lords, who seemed to “keep” the lands from him, became his vassals(subordinates). The vassal was obliged, by order of the lord, to go on a campaign and bring with him a detachment of warriors, participate in the lord’s court, help him with advice, and ransom the lord from captivity. The lord protected his vassals from attacks by other feudal lords and rebel peasants, rewarded them for their service, and was obliged to take care of their orphaned children. It happened that vassals opposed their lords, did not carry out their orders, or moved to another lord. And then only force could force them to submit, especially if the lord forced the vassals to participate in the war for too long or poorly rewarded them for their service.
The king was considered the head of all feudal lords and the first lord of the country: he was the highest judge in disputes between them and during the war he led the army. The king was the lord of the highest nobility (aristocracy) - dukes and counts. Below were barons and viscounts - vassals of dukes and counts. Barons were lords of knights who no longer had their own vassals. Vassals were supposed to obey only their lords. If they were not vassals of the king, they could not carry out his orders. This order was reinforced by the rule: “The vassal of my vassal is not my vassal.” The relationship between feudal lords resembled a ladder, on the top steps of which stood the largest feudal lords, on the lower ones - the middle ones, and even lower - the small ones. Historians call this organization of feudal lords feudal staircase.
Rice. 1. Feudal ladder ()
Feudal law also regulated the relations between masters and their dependent peasants. For example, a peasant community had the right not to obey the lord if he demanded a tax greater than that provided for by the custom of this community or the agreement between the peasants and the lord of the land. When a war with another state began, the king called on dukes and counts to go on a campaign, and they turned to the barons, who brought detachments of knights with them. This is how a feudal army was created, which is usually called a knightly army.
Since the 8th century. To protect against attacks by the Normans and Hungarians, many castles were built in Europe. Gradually, each gentleman tried to build himself a castle, depending on his capabilities - huge or modest. A castle is the home of a feudal lord and his fortress. At first, castles were built from wood, later from stone. Powerful walls with crenellated towers served as reliable protection. The castle was often built on a hill or high rock, surrounded by a wide moat with water. Sometimes it was built on an island in the middle of a river or lake. A drawbridge was thrown across a ditch or channel, and it was raised on chains at night and during an enemy attack. From the tower above the gate, the guard constantly surveyed the surrounding area and, noticing an enemy in the distance, sounded an alarm. Then the warriors hurried to take their places on the walls and towers. To get into the castle, it was necessary to overcome many obstacles. The enemies had to fill up the ditch, overcome the hill in the open space, approach the walls, climb them using the assault ladders provided, or smash the oak, iron-clad gates with a battering ram. The castle defenders dropped stones and logs on the heads of the enemies, poured boiling water and hot tar, threw spears, and showered them with arrows. Often the attackers had to storm a second, even higher wall.
Rice. 2. Medieval castle in Spain ()
The main tower, the donjon, rose above all the buildings. In it, the feudal lord with his warriors and servants could withstand a long siege if other fortifications had already been captured. Inside the tower there were halls located one above the other. A well was made in the basement and food supplies were stored. Nearby, prisoners languished in a damp and dark dungeon. A secret underground passage was usually dug from the basement, which led to a river or forest.
Military affairs became the occupation almost exclusively of feudal lords, and this was the case for many centuries. The feudal lord often fought all his life. The knight was armed with a large sword and a long spear; Often he also used a battle ax and a club - a heavy club with a thickened metal end. A knight could cover himself from head to toe with a large shield. The knight's body was protected by chain mail - a shirt woven from iron rings (sometimes in 2-3 layers) and reaching to the knees. Later, chain mail was replaced by armor - armor made of steel plates. The knight put a helmet on his head, and in a moment of danger he lowered a visor over his face - a metal plate with slits for the eyes. The knights fought on strong, hardy horses, which were also protected by armor. The knight was accompanied by a squire and several armed warriors, mounted and on foot - a whole “combat unit”. Feudal lords prepared for military service from childhood. They constantly practiced fencing, horse riding, wrestling, swimming and javelin throwing, and learned fighting techniques and tactics.
Rice. 3. Knight and squire ()
Noble knights considered themselves “noble” people and were proud of the antiquity of their families and the number of famous ancestors. The knight had his own coat of arms - a distinctive sign of the family and a motto - a short saying that usually explained the meaning of the coat of arms. The knights did not hesitate to rob the vanquished, their own peasants, and even travelers on the highways. At the same time, the knight was supposed to despise prudence and frugality, but show generosity. Income received from peasants and military spoils were most often spent on gifts, feasts and treats for friends, hunting, expensive clothing, and the maintenance of servants and soldiers. Another important quality of a knight was considered loyalty to the king and lord. This was his main responsibility. And treason imposed a stigma of shame on the entire family of the traitor. “Whoever betrays his lord must suffer punishment by right,” says one of the poems. Tales about knights glorified courage, daring, contempt for death, and nobility. This developed code (laws) of knightly honor included other special rules: a knight must seek exploits, fight the enemies of the Christian faith, defend the honor of ladies, as well as the weak and offended, especially widows and orphans, be fair and gallant. But these rules of knightly honor were applied mainly in relations between feudal lords. The knights despised everyone who was considered “ignoble” and behaved arrogantly and cruelly towards them.
References
1. Agibalova E. V., Donskoy G. M. History of the Middle Ages. - M., 2012.
2. Atlas of the Middle Ages: History. Traditions. - M., 2000.
3. Illustrated world history: from ancient times to the 17th century. - M., 1999.
4. History of the Middle Ages: Book. for reading / Ed. V. P. Budanova. - M., 1999.
5. Kalashnikov V. Mysteries of history: The Middle Ages / V. Kalashnikov. - M., 2002.
6. Stories on the history of the Middle Ages / Ed. A. A. Svanidze. - M., 1996.
Homework
1. Name the three classes of medieval society
2. Why did the peasants not enter the feudal ladder?
3. What rights and responsibilities did lords and vassals have?
4. Describe a medieval castle
5. What weapons did the knights use?
6. Name the main provisions of the code of knightly honor.
2. What changes occurred in the lives of people during the heyday of the Middle Ages: a) in the management of kingdoms; b) in agriculture and crafts; c) in everyday life?
A) in the field of government, there was a unification of the fragmented and centralization of royal power, as well as the gradual subordination of the church to secular power;
B) in agriculture, peasants gradually moved from working corvée to paying quitrents, and later began to receive personal freedom, there was the growth of cities and the development of crafts and trade;
C) calmness is established in everyday life, since hunger and disease have disappeared.
1. Explain the concepts: feud, lord, vassal, castle, tournament, community, corvee, quitrent, tithe, crusade, craft workshop, guild, town hall, commune, parliament, university, scholasticism. Which of the listed concepts relate to the life of the medieval nobility, which - to the life of peasants, and which - to townspeople or ministers of the Church?
A fief is a land holding granted by a lord to his vassal for hereditary possession under the condition that the latter perform feudal services in favor of the lord.
Seigneur is the owner of a fief, from whom smaller feudal lords - vassals - were personally dependent.
Vassal - holder of a fief.
A castle is a fortified dwelling of a feudal lord.
A tournament is an armed duel of knights, where military skill and valor were demonstrated.
Community is a group of people connected by common interests or common origin.
Corvée is the labor of a dependent peasant working with personal tools on the farm of the land owner.
A quitrent is a payment in kind or cash collected from peasants by landowners and the state.
Tithe (church) is a mandatory deduction of a tenth of the income of believers in favor of the church.
Crusade - military campaigns of Western European feudal lords in the 11th-13th centuries, which took place under the guise of religious Catholic slogans.
Workshops are associations of artisans by profession,
Guild - an association of merchants to protect their interests
The town hall is a city government body in medieval Western Europe.
A commune is a lower territorial unit of local self-government.
Parliament - solemn meetings that had different compositions and significance; then the term gradually took hold in England at the end of the 13th century. behind the highest class-representative meeting.
A university is a higher education scientific institution.
Scholasticism is the traditional system of education in medieval schools. It was based on a special way of searching for truth, which consisted in gaining a deeper knowledge of Christian teaching through logic and reasoning.
To the life of the medieval nobility: feud, vassal, castle, tournament, parliament.
To the life of peasants: community, corvee, quitrent, tithe.
To the life of townspeople: craft shop, guild, town hall, university.
To the life of church ministers: crusade, scholasticism.
2. What are estates? What classes were society divided into in the Middle Ages? What were their rights and responsibilities?
Estate is a social group that has rights and responsibilities enshrined in law or custom and inherited.
Medieval society was divided into three large groups (estates):
The clergy consisted of church servants - monks and priests. They were concerned with the spiritual life of man, and, above all, with the salvation of the soul of a Christian;
- feudal lords or knights. Their main task is to protect the country from external enemies;
- peasantry and townspeople. The main purpose of this social group was to provide food and crafts to the first two classes.
3. What was the significance for the countries of Western Europe of the increase in the number of cities, the development of crafts and trade in the 10th – 13th centuries? What were the consequences of the XTV century's disasters?
The increase in the number of cities, the development of crafts and trade led to the beginning of a gradual transition from subsistence to commercial farming, as well as to the development of education.
The disasters of the 14th century changed a lot in the relations between peasants and lords. The population of Europe had decreased, so less food was needed. Grain prices fell, but the cost of labor increased. Now workers could demand better pay from their masters. The lords did not want to incur losses, so they tried to limit the payment for hired labor. In addition, they kept coming up with new payments. All this led to peasant uprisings and wars and further gain of personal freedom.
Establishment of the feudal system in the countries of Western Europe in the 9th-11th centuries. In most states of Western Europe, the process of forming feudal relations is being completed. In some countries, for example in Italy and France, the feudal system in its main features took shape already in the 10th century; in England and Byzantium this process was completed mainly only by the end of the 11th century, in Germany even later - by the beginning of the 12th century. Feudalization progressed even more slowly in the Scandinavian countries. But by the end of the 11th century. feudal relations of production dominated in most countries of Western Europe and in Byzantium. Despite all the unique development of individual countries of Western Europe, common features characteristic of the established feudal mode of production clearly appear. Feudal land ownership in the form of patrimony, combined with small individual peasant farming, dominates. The bulk of the peasants are already in one form or another of dependence on the landowner and are subjected to severe exploitation on his part. This exploitation is expressed in feudal rent and is carried out through various means of extra-economic coercion. The previously free rural community by this time turns into a dependent community, and traditional forms of communal land use are borrowed by the feudal lords to organize the exploitation of the peasantry.
In Byzantium, although the estates of individual feudal lords are also acquiring an increasingly prominent place, state property and personally free and semi-free categories of the peasantry continue to play a large role.
At the early stage of the development of feudalism, subsistence farming dominated; the exchange was insignificant, trade relations were not developed; crafts were just beginning to separate from agriculture. In Western European countries, among personally dependent peasants, especially on large estates, labor rent and the corvee system of farming associated with it prevailed.
Leases in kind were also widely distributed from peasants who were in lighter dependence. Cash rent was still poorly developed.
The small peasant economy, although subject to exploitation by the feudal lord, was, however, more productive than the large slave-owning economy or what existed under the primitive communal system. The establishment of feudal relations in Europe in the 9th - 11th centuries. in general led to economic growth and a leap in the development of productive forces (see Chapter 19). Crafts developed, gradually separating from agricultural activities, and exchange; Roman cities that had fallen into disrepair were revived on a new feudal basis; new suburban settlements, market centers, and ports for maritime trade arose in both Southern and Northern Europe (see Chapter .7).
A characteristic feature of the socio-political relations that had developed in Europe by the middle of the 11th century was the inextricable connection between feudal land ownership and the political power of the feudal lord. A large fiefdom represented not only an economic unit, but also a kind of small independent state - a seigneury. In relation to the population of his possessions, the feudal lord was not only a landowner, but also a sovereign - a lord, in whose hands were the court, administration, military and political forces. This organization of society determined the dominance in Europe in the 10th-11th centuries. (in some countries and later) political fragmentation.
The main classes of feudal society. Peasantry. In most countries of Western Europe and in Byzantium in the 11th century. society was already divided into two antagonistic classes: the class of feudal landowners and the class of feudally dependent peasants.
Personally dependent peasants everywhere found themselves in the most difficult situation; in some countries (for example, France) already in the 10th-11th centuries. who made up a significant part of the peasantry. They depended on their lord in personal, land, and judicial-administrative matters and were subjected to especially severe exploitation. Such peasants could be alienated (usually only along with the land); they were constrained in the disposal of their inherited allotment and even their movable property, which were considered the property of the feudal lord. In addition, such peasants also performed a number of humiliating duties and were subject to payments that emphasized their personal dependence. Former slaves gradually joined the category of such peasants. In a number of countries, this most dependent layer of the peasantry was called serfs, although they were no longer slaves in the ancient meaning of the word. The situation was somewhat easier for the personally free peasants, who were, however, in land and judicial dependence on their lords. In Western Europe as a whole, they made up a very significant part of the peasantry. They could more freely dispose of their movable property, and sometimes their land allotment with the consent of the feudal lord, but they also paid him high rents. In some countries (England, Germany, the south of France, Italy) it was preserved in the 9th-11th centuries. There was still a small layer of free peasants - landowners of the allodial type, whose dependence on the lord was primarily of a judicial and political nature.
Feudal class. Feudal hierarchy. Relations between individual representatives of the feudal class in the states of Western Europe were built on the principle of the so-called feudal hierarchy (“ladder”). At its top was the king, who was considered the supreme lord of all feudal lords, their overlord - the head of the feudal hierarchy. Below him stood the largest secular and spiritual feudal lords, who held their lands - often large areas - directly from the king. This was the titled nobility: dukes, as well as the highest representatives of the clergy, counts, archbishops, bishops and abbots of the largest monasteries, who held lands from the king. Formally, they were subordinate to the king as his vassals, but in fact they were almost independent of him: they had the right to wage war, mint coins, and sometimes exercise supreme jurisdiction in their domains. Their vassals - usually also very large landowners - who often bore the name barons, were of a lower rank, but they also enjoyed a certain political power in their domains. Below the barons stood smaller feudal lords - knights - lower representatives of the ruling class who did not always have vassals. In the 9th - early 11th centuries. the term “knight” (miles) simply meant a warrior who carried out vassal, usually mounted military service to his lord (German - Ritter, from which the Russian “knight” comes). Later, in the 11th-12th centuries, as the feudal system strengthened and the class of feudal lords consolidated, it acquired a broader meaning, becoming, on the one hand, a synonym for nobility, “nobility” in relation to commoners, and on the other hand, belonging to the military class in difference from spiritual feudal lords. The knights were usually subordinate only to peasant holders who were not part of the feudal hierarchy. Each feudal lord was a lord in relation to the lower feudal lord, if he held land from him, and a vassal of the higher feudal lord, of which he himself was the holder.
The feudal lords who stood at the lower levels of the feudal ladder, as a rule, did not obey the feudal lords, whose vassals were their immediate lords. In all countries of Western Europe (except England), relations within the feudal hierarchy were regulated by the rule “my vassal’s vassal is not my vassal.”
Among the church feudal lords there also existed their own hierarchy according to the rank of the positions they held (from the Pope to parish priests). Many of them could simultaneously be vassals of secular feudal lords in their land holdings, and vice versa.
The basis and provision of vassal relations was feudal land ownership - fief, or in German flax, which the vassal kept from his lord (see Chapter 4). As a specific military holding, the feud was considered a privileged, “noble” possession, which could only be in the hands of representatives of the ruling class. The owner of the fief was considered not only its direct holder - the vassal, but also the lord from whom the vassal held the land, and a number of other lords higher up the hierarchical ladder. The hierarchy within the class of feudal lords was thus determined by the conditional and hierarchical structure of feudal land ownership. But it was formalized in the form of personal contractual relations of patronage and loyalty between the lord and the vassal. The transfer of a fief to a vassal - taking possession - was called investiture. The act of investiture was accompanied by a solemn ceremony of entering into vassalage - bringing homage(hommage - from the French word 1 "homme - man), - during which the feudal lord, entering into vassal dependence on another feudal lord, publicly recognized himself as his “man”. At the same time, he took an oath of allegiance to the lord. Among the French, it was called “foie” (in French foi - loyalty).
In addition to the main obligation to perform military service in favor of the lord and at his call (usually 40 days during the year), the vassal had to never do anything to harm him and, at the request of the lord, defend his possessions with his own forces, participate in his judicial curia and in certain cases , determined by feudal custom, to provide him with financial assistance: for the acceptance of a knighthood by his eldest son, for the marriage of his daughters, for ransom from captivity. The lord, in turn, was obliged to protect the vassal in the event of an enemy attack and to assist him in other difficult cases - to be the guardian of his young heirs, the protector of his widow and daughters.
Due to the complexity of vassal relations and frequent non-compliance with vassal obligations, there were conflicts on this basis in the 9th-11th centuries. a common occurrence. War was considered a legitimate way to resolve all disputes between feudal lords. However, from the first half of the 11th century. The church, although not always successfully, tried to ease military conflicts by promoting the idea of "God's peace" as an alternative to war. The peasants who suffered most from internecine wars were the peasants, whose fields were trampled, their villages burned and devastated at each successive clash between their lord and his many enemies.
The hierarchical organization, despite frequent conflicts within the ruling class, connected and united all its members into a privileged layer.
In conditions of political fragmentation in the 9th-11th centuries. and the absence of a strong central state apparatus, only the feudal hierarchy could provide individual feudal lords with the opportunity to intensify the exploitation of the peasantry and suppress peasant uprisings. In the face of the latter, the feudal lords invariably acted unanimously, forgetting their quarrels.
Life and customs of feudal lords. The main occupation of the feudal lords, especially in this early period, was war and the robbery that accompanied it. Their favorite pastimes were hunting, horse racing, and tournaments.
In the X-XI centuries. Europe is covered in castles. The castle - the usual home of a feudal lord - was at the same time a fortress, his refuge from external enemies, and from feudal neighbors, and from rebellious peasants. It was the center of the feudal lord's political, judicial, administrative and military power, allowing him to dominate the surrounding area and keep its entire population in subjection. Castles were usually built on a hill or on a high river bank, from where the surrounding area was clearly visible and where it was easier to defend against the enemy.
Until the end of the 10th century. castles were most often a two-story wooden tower, in the upper floor of which the feudal lord lived, and in the lower floor - the squad and servants. Here or in the outbuildings there were warehouses for weapons, provisions, premises for livestock, etc.
The castle was surrounded by a rampart and a moat filled with water. A drawbridge spanned the ditch. Around the beginning of the 11th century. feudal lords began to build castles of stone, usually surrounded by two or even three high walls with loopholes and towers in the corners. The main multi-story tower, the “donjon,” still rose in the center. The dungeons of such towers often served as a prison, where prisoners, disobedient vassals and peasants who had done something wrong languished in chains. Usually the castle surrendered to the enemy only after a months-long siege. Small feudal lords, who did not have the means to build such powerful structures, tried to strengthen their homes with strong walls and watchtowers.
The main type of troops in Europe X - XI centuries. becomes heavily armed cavalry. Each feudal lord owed his lord equestrian military service. The main weapon of a knight at that time was a sword with a cross-shaped handle and a long, heavy spear. He also used a club and a battle ax (axe); for protection from the enemy, they used chain mail and a shield, a helmet with a metal lattice plate - a visor. Later, in the XII-XIII centuries, knightly armor appeared.
The feudal lords, who spent their entire lives in wars, violence and robberies, despised physical labor, especially secular ones, were ignorant, rude and cruel. Above all, they valued physical strength, dexterity, courage in battle and generosity towards their servants and vassals, in which they saw a manifestation of their power and innate nobility, in contrast to the despised or “stingy”, in their opinion, men and townspeople. The idealized code of “knightly” behavior, depicting the knight as a noble defender of the weak and offended, developed in feudal Europe much later - in the 12th-13th centuries. (see Chapter 21). But even then he did not correspond much to the actual appearance of a feudal knight, remaining for the majority only an unattainable ideal. This ideal had nothing in common with the rude barbarian knight of the early Middle Ages.
Life and daily life of peasants. By the 11th century there were peasants. almost completely excluded from military service, which was a sign of their lack of rights. Their lot was hard agricultural labor, which essentially fed the entire society. Peasants lived in villages, often located under the walls of a castle, in the center of which there was usually a church. Villages, depending on geographical conditions, could be large or small; in some places, especially in mountainous areas, farmsteads predominated. Houses, depending on the availability of building materials, could be wooden or made of wooden frames, filled and coated with clay, or stone (especially in the south); sometimes these were small huts or dugouts.
The houses were cramped and dirty, and cold in winter. Many houses were heated “black” or warmed with an open hearth; often there were livestock in the house; sometimes several families lived on the estate. Crop failures and famines, livestock deaths and epidemics were frequent. Infant mortality was especially high.
However, the difficult life of the peasants also had its joys: holidays, many of which dated back to pagan times, but were timed by the church to coincide with Christian holidays - Christmas, Easter, Spiritual Day, Trinity, etc. Then, for example, on the day of spring celebrated almost everywhere in Europe Maypole holiday, round dances were held, folk songs were sung, mummers walked from house to house with carols. Most folklore traditions that originated in the early Middle Ages, and sometimes in the even more distant past, were associated with the life of peasants: folk songs, dances, fairy tales, proverbs, sayings. In this folk culture, the spiritual life of the mostly illiterate peasantry manifested itself in the early Middle Ages.
The relationship between the feudal lord's castle and the peasant village was contradictory. On the one hand, in everyday life there was mutual hostility and mistrust between them. But on the other hand, peasants often saw in their lord a patron and protector from the violence of other feudal lords, and they escaped from them within the walls of his castle. They sometimes gathered there to watch knightly tournaments, listen to a visiting juggler (buffoon) or singer.
The parish church played a major role in the life of the peasants, which also satisfied the spiritual needs of the peasants, whose worldview was permeated by religiosity. But in addition, the church - the largest building of the village - was the center of public life for its population: a meeting place, a repository of valuables, a refuge in the event of enemy raids.
A place of honor in the medieval theory of the three estates is occupied by “those who fight,” that is, secular feudal lords. There was vassalite system , a kind of hierarchical feudal ladder.
At its top was king- the richest land owner. He was considered supreme senor, or overlord all feudal lords. Below were the large secular feudal lords - dukes, marquises, counts, who were allocated land by the king himself. Therefore, as vassals, they were formally subordinate to the king. Accordingly, their vassals - barons- occupied a lower rung of the feudal ladder. The last step belonged knights, who might not have their own vassals.
Each European country, despite the general characteristics of the vassalage system, also had some peculiarities. For example, in France the rule was “my vassal’s vassal is not my vassal.” This, in particular, meant that the vassal served and was loyal only to the one from whom he directly received the fief. In England, this rule did not apply: here all feudal lords reported directly to the king.
The transfer of the fief took place in a solemn atmosphere. All his vassals gathered in the lord's castle. In their presence, the lord handed the new vassal a flag, a ring, a glove, a tree branch or a vine, a handful of earth, etc. These symbols indicated that the rights to own lands were being transferred to the vassal. This procedure was called investiture . It was preceded by a rite of passage. The challenger dropped to one knee in front of the lord and took his hands. Then he declared himself a vassal and swore allegiance to the overlord.
The vassal was obliged to protect the honor, life and property of the lord, to go on a campaign on his orders, to ransom his treason, to take part in the meeting of the lord's council, that is, a kind of judicial-administrative body. Vassal duties included gifts to the lord, his eldest son at the time the young man was knighted, and also to his daughter on the day of her marriage.
For his part, the lord obliged to protect and support the vassal, to take care of his possessions and offspring in case of captivity or death. The lord often determined the fate of the heirs of his vassal - he arranged their marriages, and was a guardian until they reached adulthood, because the well-being of the descendants of the vassal concerned directly the interests of the lord. The heirs, taking possession of their father's fief, paid the lord the appropriate amount and swore allegiance.
In the XI-XII centuries. Internecine wars were fought, therefore, in order to rein in the feudal freemen, the church adopted several decrees on God's peace, prohibiting feudal lords from fighting during religious holidays and weekly - from Wednesday to Monday.
In endless internal and external wars, the psychology and ideology of medieval chivalry gradually took shape. At first, a “knight” was simply a warrior who performed vassal, usually mounted, military service. Subsequently, this concept acquired a broader meaning - it became synonymous with nobility and nobility. The knights developed their own ideals and understanding of honor. The knight had to fight for the Christian faith, protect the weaker, keep his word, be faithful to his lord, and be able to stand up for himself. Over time, the basis of knightly behavior became courtliness , that is, adherence to the rules of good manners. The courtly code provided for not only courage, but also courtesy, politeness, gallantry, generosity, tact, the ability to compose poems and play musical instruments, and master the art of easy, casual conversation with other knights and beautiful ladies.
The honorary title of knight had to be earned. This could happen after knighting for special services on the battlefield or after special military education before reaching adulthood. In order to receive such training, the future knight was sent to serve at the lord's court at an early age. The boy served as a page, from the age of 15 he became the squire of the patron knight and accompanied him everywhere. During the battle, the young man stood next to the knight’s horse, held his shield, gave him a spare weapon and fought. If the boy performed his service well, he was knighted.
Before his initiation, the future knight prayed all night. After confession, communion and the obligatory bathing ritual, he was dressed in white clothes. They symbolized purity and sincerity of intentions.
The young man swore: “Having laid my hands on the Holy Gospel, in the presence of my Lord and my master, I promise and swear to carefully observe all the laws and take care of our glorious knighthood.” After this, one of the oldest knights (or the father of the applicant) took out his sword and touched it to the recruit’s shoulder three times. Then, the same three times, he kissed him. Finally, the young man was girded with a belt with a sword, which he never dared to part with, spurs were put on, and he was given a shield and helmet.
.jpg) |
| Knighting |
| Knight's coat of arms |
| Knight tournament |
Scenes from the life of knights
The dedicator of the future knight hit him with his palm either on the back of the head, or on the neck, or on the cheek, saying: “Be brave!” This was the only blow in the knight’s life to which he had the right not to respond. The initiation ritual ended with a demonstration of the new knight's agility. He jumped on his horse and in the air had to hit the scarecrow with his spear. In wartime, the knighting procedure was more modest. Even the king had to undergo the knighting ceremony.
.jpg) |
| J. Schreiber. Pages. XIX century |
Hunting and military exercises took up all the knight's time. Subsequently, knightly tournaments were added to them. These were military competitions where knights fought either in individual duels or in groups in front of a noble audience. Places of honor among the spectators were given to noble ladies. The knight's main task was to stay on his horse and use the blunt end of his spear to knock the enemy out of the saddle. It happened that at tournaments it was necessary to resolve issues of knightly honor. Then the struggle could be life or death. The winners received glory and recognition, honorary prizes, as well as the horses and weapons of the vanquished. It was considered a disgrace for a knight to be left without weapons and a horse, so the winner returned them to his unlucky rivals for a ransom. Many poor knights, marching from castle to castle, made fortunes for themselves. These adventurers came to be called knights-errant. Material from the site
.jpg) |
| Coats of arms of Czech cities |
Knights entered tournaments wearing helmets that completely covered their faces. They were recognized and distinguished by coats of arms , that is, according to the signs and drawings on a knight’s shield or on a flag (lion, dragon, eagle, falcon, etc.). The tournament managers knew the complex science of coats of arms well - heirs , that is heralds . The knight, arriving at the tournament, stopped at the barrier and, announcing his arrival, blew the horn. Then the herald came out and loudly told those present about the coat of arms of this knight. The development of a special science about the compilation and interpretation of coats of arms is also associated with heralds - heraldry .
Every feudal lord sought to have his own coat of arms. At first, only large feudal lords had coats of arms. Ordinary knights wore shields with the coat of arms of their lord. Later they received the right to their own coat of arms. In the middle of the 13th century. coats of arms appear among clergy, merchants, and townspeople. An addition to the coat of arms was often a motto - a short inscription on the coat of arms, shield about the moral principles of the knight, events in his life, etc. For example, “I go my own way” is the motto of the Counts of Nemours of Savoy; “I will not be different” is the motto of the Duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good. Medieval cities also had their own coats of arms.
Nowadays the coat of arms is one of the national symbols of each state.
XI century From a letter from the Bishop of Chartres to the Duke of Aquitaine on the mutual duties of a vassal and a lord
Whoever swears allegiance to his lord must always remember these six (obligations): not to harm the lord’s body: not to reveal his secrets and not to destroy his fortifications... not to obstruct the law, court and everything else that concerns him position and rights... not to harm his possessions." not to prevent him from achieving what he can easily achieve, and also not to make it impossible for him to do what is actually possible. If the faithful (vassal) is protected from this harm, as justice requires, then (then) he does not deserve a fief, because it is not enough not to do evil, one must do good. Moreover, by fulfilling the six mentioned (obligations), he should advise and help his lord without deception if he wants to be awarded a fief, and also always be faithful to the given oath. And the lord must do the same in everything towards his faithful (vassal).
Didn't find what you were looking for? Use the search
- only those who earn enough income to support themselves. Typically this income was provided by land. The feudal lord owns the estate, and since his honor does not allow him to cultivate it personally, he places this responsibility on his holders. Thus, the feudal lord almost always exploits at least several peasant families. In relation to these holders, he is a lord (in Latin dominus, hence the Spanish don). Having an income is a practical condition for being a nobleman. But in terms of the amount of wealth between medieval feudal lords, there is a sharp inequality, on the basis of which a number of degrees are established, starting with squire and ending with king. Contemporaries very clearly distinguished these degrees and even marked them with special names. The hierarchy of these degrees is the medieval “feudal ladder”. (See also Feudal hierarchy.)
The highest level of the feudal ladder is occupied by princes with titles (kings, dukes, marquises, counts), sovereigns of entire provinces, owners of hundreds of villages, capable of bringing several thousand knights to war.
A step lower on the feudal ladder of the Middle Ages are the noblest of the nobles, usually the owners of several villages, leading a whole detachment of knights with them to war. Since they do not have an official title, they are designated by common names, the meaning of which is not clear and is somewhat loose; These names are different in different countries, but are used as synonyms. The most common of them are: baron - in the west, in Southern France and in the Norman countries, sire, or seigneur - in the east (“baron” means husband, a man par excellence; “sire” means leader and lord). In Lombardy they are called captains, in Spain - “ricos hombres” (rich people). In Germany they say “herr”, which corresponds to the name lord, in England - lord; These names are translated into Latin by the word dominus (lord). Later they were also called bannerets because, in order to rally their men, they attached a quadrangular banner (bannière) to the end of their spear.
Even lower on the feudal ladder stands the entire mass of the ancient nobility - knights (French chevalier, German Ritter, English knight, Spanish caballero, Latin miles), owners of one estate, which, depending on the wealth of the country, consists of a whole village or from part of it. Almost each of them serves some large owner standing higher on the feudal ladder, from whom he receives an estate; they accompany him on campaigns, which, however, does not prevent them from fighting at their own risk. They are sometimes called bacheliers, in Lombardy - vavasseurs. There is also the apt name miles unius scuti, which means a warrior with one shield, that is, a knight who does not have another warrior at his disposal.
At the last rung of the medieval feudal ladder are squires. Initially - simple military servants of the knight, they later became the owners of a certain amount of land (equal to what we now call a large estate) and in the 13th century. live as masters among their holders. In Germany they are called Edelknecht (noble servant), in England - squire (corrupted ècuyer - shield-bearer), in Spain - infanzon. They are in the 13th century. will form the mass of the nobility, and in subsequent centuries the citizen raised to the nobility will pride himself on the title of squire.
Thus, on the medieval feudal ladder one can distinguish four steps, which in general terms correspond to modern military ranks: princes, dukes and counts - our generals, barons - captains, knights - soldiers, squires - servants. But in this strange army, consisting of troops at war with each other, where rank and position on the feudal scale are determined by wealth, common life eventually so mitigates inequalities that everyone, from general to servant, begins to feel like members of the same class . Then the nobility finally takes shape and then it finally becomes isolated and isolated.
In the 13th century get used to strictly distinguish between two categories of people: nobles, or noble (gentilshommes), and non-nobles, who in France are called hommes coutumiers (people of custom, coutume "a) or homme de poste (that is, potestatis - subordinate people); the name roturier (commoner) not used in the Middle Ages. These categories become strictly hereditary. Noble families belonging to any level of the feudal ladder refuse to enter into kinship with the descendants of non-noble families. Anyone who is not born of a nobleman cannot become a knight, even if he is rich enough. to lead the life of a knight; the daughter of a non-nobleman cannot marry a nobleman; the one who marries her enters into an unequal marriage and thereby dishonors himself; the feudal families will not accept his wife, and the nobles will not treat his children as equal to itself. This heredity, less strict in the documents of previous centuries, then becomes the predominant feature of medieval feudal society and dominates until the 18th century.
As the differences between the nobles are smoothed out, the nobility organized in the feudal ladder becomes increasingly alienated from the rest of the nation. The spirit of the nobility was most firmly established in France and Germany. In Spain, and especially in the south, it is weaker, due to contact with the rich population of the Moorish cities, in Italy and, perhaps, also in the south of France - due to the power of the merchant class. In England, where military-feudal habits early disappeared, a squire is no different from a rich peasant; here the boundary is set much higher - between the lords and the rest of the people; the privileged class consists only of the highest aristocracy, which is very small in number.
