I continue to describe each of the steps in preparing a presentation. It's time for the second step
FORMING A CONCLUSION
I know this order of preparation may seem like a topsy-turvy procedure - starting with the construction of the conclusion. If you would write theses in order, why deviate from the natural flow of the speech. But look at my proposal from the other side. The conclusion is the most important part of the presentation. The formulation of goals as they are presented in the conclusion is the task of the meeting as a whole. It was in conclusion that we either did it or didn’t do it. They will or they won't. They will buy or they will not buy. They will become your allies or they will not.
Conclusion is a magnifying glass. So if we focus on the magnifying glass first, and then look back to the introduction and the overall content, then everything we say and do will be structured to lead to and justify the conclusion. We will receive a well-structured presentation that is consistent in concept and achieves our goal.
The conclusion is so important for you that starting your preparation with its formation is not the only requirement. If in the middle part of your speech randomness does not interfere with you (of course, within reasonable limits), then the conclusion must go according to YOUR strict scenario. And no favors for Mr. Case.
Therefore, a conclusion will be successful if we do as professionals do - WRITE IT AND LEARN IT BY MONEY.
Conclusions can be of different types. It is best to choose one in which your own style of presentation will be most natural. Some of the possible conclusions are suggested by David A Peoples in his book “Presentations Plus”.
Conclusion "Happy Ending"
List the strengths and advantages of the subject of your presentation. And show that they are the same as the characteristics of the ideal "X" that you described in the introduction.
Conclusion "Bridge Over Troubled Waters"
Show how the functions and/or features of your product/service allow the potential consumer to avoid problems, minimize risk and achieve their goals.
Conclusion "Iceberg"
Decide in advance what the key takeaways of your presentation will be. They will be the tip of the iceberg. Your conclusion (with the iceberg pictured) will bring together the facts, evidence, examples, and references that lie below the surface of the water and support the tip of each iceberg.
Conclusion "The Last Exam"
Prepare a visual aid with a one-sentence summary for each of the main points. Leave a blank space for a keyword in each sentence. It will serve as an overview, conclusions, and reminder of the most important points.
Conclusion "Puzzle Constructor"
Break the buyer's goals into several parts. Then show how your recommendations provide a solution for each part - providing an overall solution.
Emotional conclusion
Dale Carnegie said: “When dealing with people, remember that you are not dealing with logical creatures, but with emotional ones.” So end with an emotional quote from a respected authority.
Let me remind you that David A. Peoples wrote his book based on the experience of sales managers at IBM. He himself is the head of the management training group for this company. The conclusions he offers cover a very wide range of presentations. But still, the emphasis is on situations typical for managers of the “blue giant”.
The proposed conclusions are most suitable for presentations held in organizations with the goal of selling a product or service. Listeners, as a rule, range from a few people to several dozen people. The audience is little known to you and seems homogeneous in terms of the degree of participation in the actions after the presentation, in terms of the influence of individual participants on the development of events.
The situation changes if you have additional information about the audience. Namely, the information that allows you to appeal to the emotions of key people in your audience. Or the audience is small - one, two, three people. In such a situation, the role of emotionality in prison increases significantly. People make decisions based on emotions. Your logical constructions leading to a conclusion will not make them act in the way you want if their emotions tell them: “No, this is not what I need.” But if their emotions are on your side, then all the logic of your presentation will be needed here - to logically justify their emotional decisions.
In a small audience, you can even change the style of your speech. Even a few seconds of personal communication with listeners is enough to understand their behavioral style. And make appropriate adjustments to your speaking style. We'll talk about this more in future issues.
If you have the opportunity to appeal to your audience's emotions in your conclusion, do so. The form of logical construction can be any of the above. But be sure to use your information about emotional preferences and behavioral style. First of all, you must have feelings on your side. Logic is just their handmaiden.
This concludes the general part of the newsletter. I close with a reminder. Don't trust chance.
WRITE YOUR CONCLUSION AND LEARN IT BY MONEY.
and for you. If the speaker speaks or reads with interest for himself and the audience feels it, then the listeners will also be interested.
In addition, try to make sure that in your speech there is not just a chain of different thoughts, but there is one main idea to which all the others are subordinated. Then the listeners will guess what you want to convince them of, and will listen with interest and wait for how you formulate your main idea at the end.
201. Prepare a short story about the history of your region (city, area). Select the most interesting facts from it. Based on them, build a short speech according to plan:
1. Address to listeners.
2. Determining the topic and purpose of the speech.
3. A presentation of the most striking facts of the history of the region (city).
4. An emotional conclusion addressed to the audience.
202. Write it off. Check it in the dictionary.О Make up sentences using the highlighted words. Which member of the sentence is
does each of these words mean?
buildings of modern architecture .textures, river .to restore an old picture, a symbol of friendship, i.e. celebration. oratorical speech, rhetoric, scientific laboratory, computer class.
Review questions
1. Which part of the sentence is called the subject? Which part of the sentence is called the predicate?
2. Name the main ways of expressing the subject. Give examples.
3. What types of predicates do you know? How did you grow in each of them?
and predicate.
5. What groups are the minor members divided into? Tell us about each minor member. Give examples.
6. How do agreed definitions differ from inconsistent ones?
7. Talk about applications expressed by proper names, and about adding a hyphen to applications.
SINGLE SENTENCES
20. Main groups of one-part sentences
In two-part sentences, the grammatical basis consists of two main members - the subject and the predicate. Both of these terms are necessary to understand the meaning of the sentence. In one-component sentences, the grammatical basis consists of one main member (subject or predicate).
According to the form of the main member, one-part sentences are divided into two main groups: 1) with the main member - the predicate, 2) with the main member - the subject. Compare, for example: It's getting dark. Evening is freezing. Freezing.
Like two-part sentences, one-part sentences can be uncommon and common; compare, for example: It’s freezing and It’s freezing in the morning;
Evening and Quiet evening.
203. Read. Indicate one-part sentences. What kind of proposals are these - common or not common? Is the main member the subject or the predicate? O Write down, indicating the grammatical basis of the sentences.
1) At the r..revel, the caravan started laughing. 2) T..nulo ve
blacker coolness. 3) We sit down by the fire. 4) Thick fog. Drizzle. 5) The wind is driving rain from the mountains.
(According to G. Fedoseev.)
SINGLE SENTENCES
WITH THE MAIN MEMBER - THE PREDICATE
21. Sentences are definitely personal
204. Read it. Find two-part sentences, then one-part sentences with the main member - the predicate. Specify inclination, time, person predicate verbs in these sentences.
ta. Will you, Valya, come with me? 4) Let’s run and get dressed quickly! 5) Guys, don’t be late for class!
example: 1) I love thunderstorms in early May. (Tyutch.) 2) We’ll go to sea tomorrow. (Churkin.) 3) Isn’t it from Moscow?
will you? (M.G.) 4) Why are you laughing? You're laughing at yourself! (G.) 5) Choose a book to your liking. 6) Sing
let's go to the garden. Let's get to work.
Definitely personal sentences express the action of the speaker (I'm reading a book) or the interlocutor (Are you still reading?), as well as the motivation for the interlocutor to act (Read the book).
205. Read. Find specific, personal suggestions. Indicate how the main term is expressed in them. Write down definitely personal sentences. Indicate the predicate in them.
1) Tomorrow I’m going with a driver and a guide to the mountains.
2) Pavel and I select from our property only the most necessary things. 3) In two hours of sleep.. I will talk to the doctor. .m. 4) Where did the day begin? .shall we know? 5) Today we will inspect the northern slopes. 6) Why (n..) are you going to rest? 7) (N..) forget to inform headquarters today about the events of yesterday. 8) When I say goodbye, I shake his hand for a long time.
(According to G. Fedoseev.)
206. Read. Find definite personal sentences and say which form of the verb expresses the predicate in them. Copy using missing punctuation marks. Denote the predicate in definite personal sentences.
1) I love you Petra creation I love your strict
slim look | 2) Show off the city of Petrov and stand immovably like Russia | 3) It was a terrible time to remember her freshly. .nanye... My friends, I’ll start my story about her for you | 4) My friend, we dedicate our souls to our homeland with beautiful impulses j 5) I’ll tell you a fairy tale that
an old Kalmyk woman told me in childhood | 6) Tell me, brother, what girl are you keeping under your guard | Show her to me j 7) Then he [Pugachev] turned to Marya Ivanovna and said to her affectionately | Come out, red maiden; I give you freedom | 8) When the horses started moving, he [Pugachev] once again leaned out of the wagon and shouted to me j Farewell, your honor [Maybe, I’ll see you someday j (A.S. Pushkin.)
207. Read, replacing the indefinite form first with verbs in the form 1st person plural, then verbs in the imperative form. Write it down. O In what cases does a proposal express a demand, and in what cases does it express an invitation to joint action?
1) (Get acquainted) with a new set of gymnastic exercises. 2) (Stand) in one line. 3) (Prepare) for walking in place. 4) (Raise) your hands up.
5) (Repeat) this exercise. 6) A little (rest).
208. Read the text about linguist. Make a plan for it. What style would you classify this text as? Find words and expressions characteristic of this style. Tell us about the scientific activities of A. A. Shakhmatov. О Explain the meaning of the highlighted word, select synonyms for it.
Alexey Alexandrovich Shakhmatov
deep interest in the problems of the language of knowledge. While still studying at the gymnasium, he took part in scientific debates. It was published at the same time
his first article. The scientific interests of the Koved language are multifaceted. A. A. Shakhmatov studied the history and dialectology of Russian and other Slavic languages. He's a cart
V.V. Vinogradova, “for the first time, colossal material has been collected, characterizing the amazing variety of syntactic structures of the modern Russian language.” A. A. Shakhmatov was the first in the history of our science to identify types of one-component sentences and describe the features of their structure, and developed a classification of incomplete sentences. Many of Shahmatov’s syntactic ideas have not lost their relevance to this day.
209. Write it down, putting the verbs in brackets in the plural form of the imperative mood. What are your specific personal suggestions expressing here? O Tell us about the spelling of verbs in the imperative form.
Pushing away from support is a necessary condition for movement. But does it always happen like this? (Take) a heavy stick in your hands. (Stand) on the ice. (Throw) the stick forward. What will happen? You will roll3 backwards. But you didn’t even think3 of pushing off the ice with your foot. We have looked at the phenomenon of recoil. (According to JI. D. Landau, A. I. Kitaigorodsky.)
22. Vaguely personal sentences
210. Read it. Find one-part sentences with the main member - the predicate. Indicate in what forms they are used in these sentences predicate verbs.
Villagers are preparing for |
villages |
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and villages are preparing for sowing. |
2) Gardeners |
dig in |
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dig in |
Agronomists |
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germination |
On an experienced |
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checked the germination of seeds.
II. 1) Someone is knocking on the door. - There is a knock on the door. 2) By
go to the phone, your friend is calling you again. - Go to the phone. They're calling you.
Indefinite finite sentences are one-part sentences with a predicate - a verb in the form of the 3rd person plural in -
standing and future tense and in the plural form in the past tense, for example: 1) What's great in the newspaper write? (School.) 2) There was a knock on the door. (JI. T.) In such sentences, the action itself is important, and not the persons who perform it.
Note.Vaguely personal And definitely personalsentences can have the meaning of a generalized person, i.e. indicate that the action is performed by everyone, by any person, for example: 1) Chickens are counted in the fall (i.e.
everyone should do this, this is true for any person); 2) You can't fill a bottomless barrel with water (i.e. no one can
can do this); 3) What kind of birds can you see in the spring forest! (M.-S.) (i.e. everyone can see).
Especially often this meaning is given to predicates expressed by a verb in the 2nd person singular form. Many proverbs are sentences like this, for example:
You can’t even take a fish out of a pond without difficulty.
211. Read and say in what forms predicate verbs are used in indefinitely finite sentences.
1) People in the ward remembered his stories for a long time. (Yu. Germ.) 2) A light was turned on on the balcony of the neighboring dacha. (Paust.) 3) They lead the horse to me. (P.) 4) The performance of our choir will be broadcast on the radio. 5) They don’t walk on lawns. 6) We don’t smoke here.
212. Convert two-part sentences into synonymous one-part indefinite-personal ones. What did you do for this? How has the meaning of the sentences changed? O Choose a synonym for the highlighted word.
Sample. The children are making noise in the house. - There is noise in the house.
1) Builders are erecting a new theater building on the square. 2) Polar explorers sent two polar bears to the zoo. 3) At this enterprise, workers assemble computers. 4) Researchers at the institute will conduct a series of experiments. 5) Someone touched me on the shoulder and I woke up, b) In the evening the postman brought us a telegram. 7) Friends invited us to the theater.
computer
experiment
experiment
213. Convert indefinitely personal sentences into two-part sentences. How will the meaning of the sentence change?
1) I'm in a hurry. They're waiting for me. 2) Don't worry: we
214. Make up vaguely personalsentences with verbs call, knock, transmit, call, using them
V present or past tense form.
215. Read it. Specify offer type and form predicate verb. Write it off. O Remember and write down three proverbs with a predicate - a verb in the 2nd person form.
1) A smart head is revered (with) the youth. 2) It’s a matter of words (not) substitutions, .sh. 3) After a case they (don’t) go for advice.
4) Stand up for the truth. 5) (C)begin, think, then speak. 6) The nightingale is (not) fed with fables.
(Proverbs.)
216. Read. Indicate which of these sentences are simple and which are complex. Copy, indicating in each sentence its grammatical basis and placing missing commas. What types of one-part sentences were found in the exercise? O What is the distinction between particles “not” and “nor” based on?
I. 1) On the mirror-shiny road, why am I driving past
porch. (Tward.) |
off we go |
here we go...let's go |
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square. (Andreev.) 3) At the very beginning, months |
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mornings.. Do you remember? (Paust.) 4) It was big |
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when the last trees stepped down. |
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do it to yourself (n..) if you want and to others (n..). (Ate.) |
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Like a wolf (n..)feed, he keeps looking into the forest. (Ate.) |
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written with the pen of that (n. .) you will cut it out with an ax. (Ate.) |
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1) On mass graves (n..) they put |
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you don't cry at them. Someone brings them |
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and the eternal flame lights. 2) I (n..) love |
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when I am afraid and (n..) suffer when the (n..) culprits are beaten. |
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I (n..) love it when people get into my soul... 4) Sleeping |
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calmly under |
flowers but |
when they find |
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(V. Vysotsky.) |
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217. Compare sentences. How are they different? Determine the type of one-part sentences. Give reasons for your answer.
1) Don’t be late for lessons. - Don’t be late for lessons.
call. 4) This store sells books. - This store sells books. 5) Toys are made at the factory. - Toys are made at the factory.
218. Copy, replacing verbs in the 1st person form with verbs in the 2nd person form. In which case (before or after the alteration) is the nature of the narrative more generalized (the reader, as it were, himself participates in what is depicted)?
I usually arrive at the fishing spot (early) early. But I smell it among people I know. In the morning I wake up in a clean room.
I'm sold. Then get up..yu. Right... I put my backpack on my back. I say goodbye to the guest. .pr. .real owners. (Not) patiently I walk towards the thick reeds... thickets.
219. Read. Find one-part sentences and determine their type. Explain for what purpose the author uses one-part sentences.
A hunting rifle hangs on the wall.
It happens like this: you look at a gun and remember something. And thoughts will flow into the past. I remember soft evenings in the August forest surrounding the sedge lake, the morning dawns of spring, gentle autumn with a golden-yellow carpet of leaves, or a cheerful, carefree, cheerful, sunny winter day of the first powder, like youth. I remember a lot. And you don’t go everywhere alone. Someone gets up in
eat. You listen to the breathing of your native expanses, you listen to the beating of your heart, and the same cry of the cranes, returning again. (According to G. Troepolsky.)
220. Read the beginning of the story. Think about how you can continue it. Use sentences with a generalized meaning where necessary to enliven the narrative.
We try to spend Sunday interesting. You're looking forward to the big day. That's what happened last week...
23. Impersonal offers
221. Read it. Find the grammatical basis in two-part and one-part sentences. Indicate the forms in one-part sentencespredicate verbs.Create sentences with impersonal verbs dawn, shiver, feel unwell in present and past tense forms.
1) It's getting dark. - Evening is coming. 2) It was frosty in the morning - It was freezing since the morning. 3) I want to sleep. - I want to sleep.
present tense or in the neuter form in the past tense, for example: 1) It’s already completely dark. (T.) 2) It will be dawn soon. (M.G.) 3) It was quiet outside. (L.T.)
The predicate in an impersonal sentence is expressed
in the following ways: |
|||
Simple verb |
|||
1) Impersonal verb |
In the evenings |
worked |
|
|
Composite Note: For the category of state and short participle, the verb is used in the past and future tense: bunch of be in impersonal form: It was nice to be with you They talk about various states of nature or people and animals, for example: 1) It's cold outside and 2) I'm cold. In the latter case, the sentence usually contains an addition in the form of the dative case, indicating who exactly is experiencing this or that state. 222. Outline this paragraph. 223. Read it. Find impersonal sentences, indicate they contain the form of a predicate verb. O What other one-part sentences were found in the exercise? 1) It was getting light. Snowy field with frozen waves The crust suddenly turned pink from the cold sun. (V. Bel.) 2) It’s getting dark. The pre-holiday evening is coming. (Boon.) | |||
Oratory speech, its features. Public speaking about the history of your region Let the one who knows how to persuade with his speech be called a speaker. Cicero Words can cry and laugh, Command, pray and conjure, And, like a heart, bleed, And breathe indifferently with the cold. ...The word is capable of becoming a call, and a response, and a call, changing the mood. And they curse, and swear by word, They admonish, and glorify, and vilify. Y. Kozlovsky “The Word”
What is correct speech? The speaker must have a high level of speech culture. This requires knowledge of the norms of literary language and the ability to choose accurate, intelligible and most appropriate means for expressing thoughts. Language norms are the rules of pronunciation, word usage, and grammar generally accepted in the speech of educated people. Speech (stylistic) errors are made as a result of violation of the norm in stress and pronunciation, incorrect choice of word or its form, and erroneous construction of a syntactic structure. When choosing a word, you should take into account its meaning, compatibility of the word with other words and other features. In oratory, it is recommended to adhere to bookish rather than colloquial forms.
Stages of speech preparation Since ancient times, it has been customary in rhetoric to distinguish a five-stage scheme of stages of speech preparation: Since ancient times, it has been customary to distinguish a five-stage scheme of speech preparation stages in rhetoric: Invention - invention Disposition - arrangement Elocution - expression Memorio - memorization Accio - pronunciation
Mastery of one's own voice The speaker must be sensitive to the spoken word. The semantic perception of speech depends on its tempo, strength, and height. The speaker achieves great effect by changing the tempo, strength, and pitch of his voice depending on the content of the speech, that is, avoiding monotony. The speaker must have good diction, that is, pronounce words clearly and clearly. An experienced speaker pays great attention to pauses: they allow you to make certain semantic accents and make breathing easier.
Stage of invention (invention) The speaker must: determine the purpose and type of speech; identify the level of training and activities of yourself and your students; select information to reveal the topic, highlight the most significant for the message; decide whether to write the text of the speech?
Arrangement stage (disposition) The speaker must: Make a plan; write down numbers, quotes, examples to the points of the plan; think about what the introduction, the main part of the speech, and the conclusion will be; determine transitions from one part to another; decide which methods of presentation and explanation of the material will be used.
Enunciation Stage (Accio) During the enunciation stage, the speaker must: Establish and maintain contact with the audience; know the psychology of listeners; pay attention to gestures, facial expressions, appearance of the speaker; think over ways to deal with fear and anxiety; analyze successful and unsuccessful speeches of other speakers;
How to work on an oral presentation The speech must be carefully prepared: it is necessary to determine the topic, purpose, title of the speech, taking into account the composition of the audience and the situation. Then draw up a preliminary plan, select theoretical and factual material. When working on book sources, you need to use skimming, selective reading, in-depth reading, making verbatim extracts, making notes, etc. After selecting the material for the speech, they write either its full text, or a synopsis, theses, or an outline. Rehearsal is a necessary part of preparation. Particular attention should be paid to pronunciation technique, facial expressions, and gestures. It is necessary to analyze your performance to take into account its positive and negative aspects.
Dmitry Sergeevich Likhachev on the most important signs of good public speech If you want to be a truly intelligent, educated and cultured person, pay attention to your language. Speak correctly, accurately and economically. To make a speech entertaining, everything you say must be interesting to you. If the speaker talks or reads with enthusiasm and the audience feels it, then the listeners will be interested. Try to make sure that in your speech there is not just a chain of different thoughts, but there is one main idea to which all the others are subordinated.
Workshop on rhetorical figures and tropes 1. What rhetorical figures and tropes are used in statements? The word is not a toy ball flying in the wind. This is a tool of work: it must lift a certain weight behind it. And only by how much it captures and lifts someone else’s mood with it, we evaluate its significance and strength... Then artistic abilities grow, become enlivened, and become stronger. Locked in isolated self-satisfaction, they become increasingly refined, lose strength and vitality, wither or turn to one-sided, exclusive moods of a purely exotic nature. (V. G. Korolenko)
2. What rhetorical figures and tropes are used in the statements? 2. What rhetorical figures and tropes are used in the statements? He is truly eloquent who expresses ordinary things simply, great things sublimely, and average things with moderation. (Cicero)
Workshop on types and types of eloquence 3. Determine what type and type of eloquence the text belongs to. Justify your point of view. 3. Determine what type and type of eloquence the text belongs to. Justify your point of view. In the future, which we strive to free from worries and fears, a world opens before us, built on the basis of the four inalienable freedoms of man. The first of these is freedom of speech anywhere in the world. The second freedom of religious worship anywhere and everywhere in the world. The third is freedom from want, which, according to concepts accepted throughout the world, means mutual understanding in the sphere of economic relations, ensuring for each state a peaceful, prosperous life for its citizens everywhere in the world. The fourth freedom is freedom from fear, which, in the same words, means the reduction of armaments throughout the world to such an extent, to such a complete extent, that no state will be able to commit an act of aggression against any of its neighbors anywhere in the world. In the future, which we strive to free from worries and fears, a world opens before us, built on the basis of the four inalienable freedoms of man. The first of these is freedom of speech anywhere in the world. The second freedom of religious worship anywhere and everywhere in the world. The third is freedom from want, which, according to concepts accepted throughout the world, means mutual understanding in the sphere of economic relations, ensuring for each state a peaceful, prosperous life for its citizens everywhere in the world. The fourth freedom is freedom from fear, which, in the same words, means the reduction of armaments throughout the world to such an extent, to such a complete extent, that no state will be able to commit an act of aggression against any of its neighbors anywhere in the world. Franklin D. Roosevelt O. On the Four Freedoms. Franklin D. Roosevelt O. On the Four Freedoms.
Determine what type and type of eloquence the text belongs to. Justify your point of view. At this solemn meeting, I consider it my pleasant duty to once again express my gratitude to the Royal Swedish Academy, which awarded me the Nobel Prize. At this solemn meeting, I consider it my pleasant duty to once again express my gratitude to the Royal Swedish Academy, which awarded me the Nobel Prize. I have already had the opportunity to publicly testify that this gives me a feeling of satisfaction not only as international recognition of my professional merits and the characteristics inherent in me as a writer. I am proud that this prize was awarded to a Russian, Soviet writer. I represent here a large group of writers from my homeland. I have already had the opportunity to publicly testify that this gives me a feeling of satisfaction not only as international recognition of my professional merits and the characteristics inherent in me as a writer. I am proud that this prize was awarded to a Russian, Soviet writer. I represent here a large group of writers from my homeland. I have already expressed my satisfaction with the fact that this award is indirectly another affirmation of the novel genre. Often in recent times I have heard and read, to be honest, speeches that surprised me, in which the form of the novel was declared outdated and did not meet the requirements of modern times. Meanwhile, it is the novel that makes it possible to most closely embrace the world of reality and project on the image one’s attitude towards it, towards its burning problems, the attitude of one’s like-minded people. The novel, so to speak, most predisposes us to a deep knowledge of the huge life around us, and not to attempts to imagine our small “I” as the center of the universe. This genre by its nature represents the widest springboard for a realist artist. I have already expressed my satisfaction with the fact that this award is indirectly another affirmation of the novel genre. Often in recent times I have heard and read, to be honest, speeches that surprised me, in which the form of the novel was declared outdated and did not meet the requirements of modern times. Meanwhile, it is the novel that makes it possible to most closely embrace the world of reality and project on the image one’s attitude towards it, towards its burning problems, the attitude of one’s like-minded people. The novel, so to speak, most predisposes us to a deep knowledge of the huge life around us, and not to attempts to imagine our small “I” as the center of the universe. This genre by its nature represents the widest springboard for a realist artist. M.A. Sholokhov. Speech on the occasion of being awarded the Nobel Prize. M.A. Sholokhov. Speech on the occasion of being awarded the Nobel Prize.
Laboratory work Prepare an oral presentation about the history of your native land, using both verbal and non-verbal means of influencing the audience. Rehearse your speech in front of a mirror or video camera. Analyze your own speech, correct mistakes.
Functions of the ending of a public speech
Conclusion has two main functions -
recall the main idea and explain what “should be done” with it.
The speaker needs to remember both functions of the conclusion.
Ending options
It’s better not to say: “Now I’ll conclude” or “Now I’m moving on to the final part of my lecture”; the ending should be obvious to the listener, without special introductory words. The following ending options can be suggested.
Quote, catchphrase, saying, folk wisdom.
This ending is especially well remembered by audiences of average and below average levels of preparedness. For example: “The popular wisdom says correctly - if you endure it, you will fall in love”; “The Russian proverb says it right - patience and work will grind everything down. So everything depends on us."
Summary conclusion
The result of the speech is necessary verbalize as a conclusion, so that it is perceived by the audience precisely as a conclusion, as the main idea of the speech: “So, …”. The main conclusion is formulated in full verbal form. At the same time, it should be brief and expressed in simple words; After the output there is no need to add anything or comment anything.
Address to listeners
You can end your speech by wishing the listeners to have a good weekend or summer vacation, have a good time tonight, etc., congratulate them on the upcoming holidays, etc. In this case, the listeners remember the speaker to a greater extent than the ideas he expresses.
Summative repetition
The main idea is repeated in expanded verbal form in the form of a thesis or enumeration: firstly, secondly, and thirdly. As listeners, we are mostly lazy, have short memories and are always grateful for a short repetition given in any form.
Illustration
The main idea is illustrated by an example, analogy, parable, allegory. There is no need to add anything after it.
Climax
The main idea is expressed at the end of the speech on a high emotional note, for example: “And history will write in bright letters the name of this man above the names of all those who tried to stop him!” Experts note that the climax as an effective ending is not suitable for all types of public speaking, but it usually makes a strong impression on listeners.
Audience Compliment
D. Carnegie gives this example of such an ending: “The great state of Pennsylvania must lead the movement to hasten the advent of a new time!”
Humorous ending
It could be a joke, an anecdote, a funny story. “If you can, leave the audience laughing,” advised D. Carnegie.
Thanks for your attention
This is the traditional ending. A slight expansion can make it somewhat less traditional - if the speaker not only utters the routine phrase “Thank you for your attention,” but also says a few words that positively characterize today’s audience, its level, interesting questions that were asked, etc., that is, he will say audience compliment.
For example: “In conclusion, I would like to thank you for your attention, for listening to me so carefully and asking interesting questions. It was a pleasure for me to speak in your audience.” Or: “Thank you for your attention. It was a great pleasure for me to perform in your attentive and friendly audience.” Or: “Thank you for your attention. And I want to thank you separately for the very interesting questions you asked me.”
How not to end a speech
You shouldn’t apologize: “I understand, I didn’t manage to cover everything,” “I see, I tired you a little...”, etc.
There is no need to remember anything additional after you have formulated a conclusion - the entire impression of it will be blurred.
You cannot cut off your speech without a conclusion and walk away.
Under no circumstances should you leave the audience in a mood of hopelessness and hopelessness in connection with the gloomy pictures you have drawn - you must give the listeners some perspective, outline a way out of the situation and express confidence that the worst will not happen. You need to end your speech only on an optimistic note.
Answers to questions from the audience
How to answer questions? This is a problem for many speakers. Beginners, inexperienced speakers are afraid of questions, and sometimes even consider it successful that their speech did not raise questions from the listeners. This is a mistake. You should not be afraid of questions, and in order to increase the impact of your speech, questions from the audience should even be stimulated, and
sometimes even “provoke”. What are the basic principles for a speaker's response to questions?
You must answer all questions.
Please note that it is not necessary to answer all questions immediately. You can postpone the answer by saying: “I understand you, I will answer you a little later. This is not entirely relevant to our topic, but I will try to answer you at the end of our conversation...” You can also say this: “This is a private question, please come to me during the break (or after my speech), we will discuss this with you.” It is better to answer even a not very serious question seriously, finding some rational grain in it.
Respond equally respectfully to everyone.
This means that the speaker must show attention, respect for anyone asking a question, recognize any question, the question of any listener as legitimate, legitimate, worthy of attention. By the way, when answering a question, you should never say to the questioner: “You misunderstood me,” you should say: “Apparently, I expressed myself poorly,” or “Apparently, I could not explain my thought well,” etc.
Answer briefly.
Don't turn your answer into a lecture! We have already noted above: a minute and a half is the limit for answering any question.
Quests
1. Which statements are correct?
1. The ending is only necessary for large performances.
2. An ending is necessary in any public speech.
3. The conclusion must be expanded.
4. A conclusion with a list (so, firstly, secondly...) is ineffective and poorly perceived by the audience.
5. The climax ending is always well remembered by listeners.
6. A humorous ending is effective in any audience.
7. Gratitude for attention is effective if the speaker specifies what he is grateful to the audience for.
8. By apologizing to the audience for not being able to cover everything, the speaker improves the audience's impression of himself.
9. If the audience has no questions, then everything is clear to them and the performance was successful.
10. The speaker has the right to leave some questions on the topic of his speech unanswered.
11. You can say to the person asking the question, “You misunderstood me.”
12. You can say to the person asking the question, “Apparently, I didn’t express myself clearly enough.”
13. Private questions can be answered by inviting those who asked them to approach the speaker after the speech has ended.
14. There is no need to answer offensive questions.
15. Offensive questions must be answered seriously, like all others.
2. Read the endings of the speech. Which ones are correct and which ones are incorrect?
All. Goodbye.
And in conclusion, I’ll tell you an anecdote that I recently heard...
That's all I wanted to tell you. Goodbye.
I finished.
That's it. Unfortunately, I didn’t tell you a lot because I didn’t have much time.
Goodbye. I would like you to listen to me more carefully next time. Your audience is inattentive.
Thank you for your attention. It was a pleasure to perform with you.
So, let's conclude: if everyone takes their responsibilities responsibly, we will have prosperity and order in our country.
That's it, I'm done. Sorry if I talked too long.
So, let's work - and everything will work out.
I hope you all have a great time during the upcoming holidays. All the best to you!
If you have questions, I'm ready to answer them.
I'll leave it at that. I see that you are all tired already.
3. Remember the fables you know. Formulate a general conclusion from each fable.
For example: “The Dragonfly and the Ant” - So, whoever works is guaranteed to ensure a normal life.
4. End your speech with an address to the audience. What can you wish for them? advise?
Facts you can use:
· what was discussed today will be useful to listeners in their work;
· information from today's speech will help listeners improve relationships with friends, bosses, and family;
· Holidays are coming soon;
· the professional holiday of listeners is approaching;
· a performance can lift your spirits in today's difficult times;
· holidays are approaching;
· summer is approaching;
· the academic year ends;
· exams are approaching;
· New Year is approaching.
5. End your speech by thanking you for your attention. Be sure to verbally expand your expression of gratitude for your attention.
Facts that can be used to expand the ending:
The audience listened attentively;
· the audience received you kindly;
· the audience asked interesting questions;
· the audience willingly participated in the discussion;
· the audience demonstrated a sense of humor;
· few listeners came, but everyone was very interested;
· the audience did not always agree with you, but always argued with reason;
· It was a pleasure to discuss with the audience;
· The audience is very well prepared in this area.
6. Gradation (a rhetorical device that consists in increasing the power of expression from word to word: I wanted see her, I longed for see her I my soul was eager for her every minute and every second) is a sign of journalistic, especially excited speech. It is effective in a positive, benevolent, emotionally sympathetic audience.
7. You are finishing your journalistic speech. Construct the final phrase using the gradation technique. Use the words and expressions given in brackets. If necessary, change the construction of the phrase.
1. It’s not just….. it’s…., it’s…… it’s finally simple -…!
(Negligence, error, deficiency in work, crime, improvidence, inattention to the performance of one's official duties, blatant indifference to the fate of people, negligence)
We must completely eliminate the possibility of such situations repeating in the future!
2. I’m not just….. lyrics of modern pop music, I’m them….., I’m them….. I’m them….. I’m just…!
(I’m indifferent, I don’t like, I can’t stand, I can’t tolerate, I hate, I can’t see or hear, I’m disgusted, I despise, I’m not interested).
We must return to music with meaningful lyrics!
3. Such behavior of a Duma deputy is not just..., it is...., it is......, it is......, it is....!
(indecent, ugly, dishonest, outrageous, unacceptable in his position, criminal)
We must take immediate measures to recall this deputy from the Duma!
8. You speak as a youth representative at the congress of the Russian intelligentsia. Come up with and say the final phrase of your speech excitedly and expressively.
· If our young intelligentsia does not help Russia, no one will help it.
· The Russian intellectual has always been distinguished by humanism and nobility. Now is the time for our intelligentsia to once again show their best qualities for the benefit of Russia.
Construct the final phrase of your speech according to the model “No need...., it’s better...”, “Enough...., it’s time...” (“don’t teach me how to live, better help me financially”, “stop whining, it’s time to work”).
Stop complaining...
There is no need to explain why this is difficult to do...
Stop being nice...
Stop judging others...
Enough general talk...
Topic 9. Argumentation
Thesis and arguments
Speaker in public speaking argues a certain point of view, that is, it carries out argumentation.
Under argumentation refers to the process of providing evidence, explanations, and examples to substantiate any idea in front of listeners or interlocutors.
Thesis- this is the main idea (of a text or speech), expressed in words, this is the main statement of the speaker, which he tries to substantiate, prove..
Arguments- this is evidence given in support of the thesis: facts, examples, statements, explanations, in a word, everything that can confirm the thesis.
From the thesis to the arguments, you can ask the question “Why?”, and the arguments answer: “Because.”
For example:
“Watching TV is useful” - thesis our performance. Why?
Arguments- because:
1. We learn the news on TV.
2. The weather forecast is reported on TV.
3. We watch educational programs on TV.
4. Interesting films are shown on TV, etc.
The arguments that the speaker gives are of two types: arguments “for” (for his thesis) and arguments “against” (against someone else’s thesis).
The arguments in favor should be:
· accessible, simple and understandable;
· as close as possible to the opinions established in the audience,
· reflect objective reality, correspond to common sense.
Arguments against should:
· convince the audience that the arguments given in support of the thesis you are criticizing are weak and do not stand up to criticism.
An important rule of argumentation: arguments must be given in the system. This means that you need to think about which arguments to start with and which to end with.
Persuasiveness of arguments
Arguments must be convincing, that is, strong, with which everyone agrees. The strength and persuasiveness of an argument is a relative concept, since much depends on the situation, the emotional and mental state of the listeners and other factors - their gender, age, profession, etc. However, a number of typical arguments can be identified that are considered strong in most cases.
Such arguments usually include:
· scientific axioms,
· provisions of laws and official documents,
· laws of nature, conclusions confirmed experimentally,
· testimony of eyewitnesses,
· statistical data.
In ancient times, such arguments included testimony obtained under torture.
It is also necessary to keep in mind that weak arguments with top-down argumentation look better than with other methods of argumentation: as E. A. Yunina and G. M. Sagach note, “if “weak” arguments are used as a complement to “strong” ones (and not as relatively independent), then the degree of their “weakness” decreases, and vice versa.”
Sometimes they think that the most important thing in argumentation is to find as much evidence and arguments as possible. But that's not quite how. A Latin proverb says: “Evidence should not be counted, but weighed.” There is also a proverb: he who proves a lot proves nothing. The most important thing is to think through each piece of evidence: how convincing it is for a given audience, how serious it is.
The optimal number of arguments is three.
Starting from the fourth argument, the audience often perceives the argumentation no longer as a certain system (first, second and, finally, third), but as “many” arguments; in this case, one often gets the impression that the speaker is trying to put pressure on the audience, “persuading.” Let us again remember the saying: he who proves a lot proves nothing. So, “many” arguments in an oral presentation usually begin with the fourth argument.
Rules of Argumentation
1. Determine the topic of your speech and formulate it.
For example: “I want to talk about...”, “Today I am interested in the question about...”, “There is such a problem -...”, etc.
2. Formulate the main thesis of your speech. Put it into words.
For example: “It seems to me that...., and here’s why.”
3. Choose arguments to support your thesis.
4. Bring your arguments into the system - arrange them in a certain order: first, second, third, etc.
5. If necessary, refute the opposing thesis by giving arguments against it.
6. Draw a conclusion.
Methods of argumentation
Several methods of argumentation can be distinguished.
1. Top-down and bottom-up argumentation.
These modes of argumentation differ in whether the argument strengthens or weakens towards the end of the speech.
Descending argumentation consists in the fact that first the speaker gives the strongest arguments, then less strong ones, and ends the speech with an emotional request, motivation or conclusion. According to this principle, for example, a statement will be constructed asking for help in resolving the housing issue: “Please pay attention to my plight with housing. I live... I have... Please provide me with housing.”
Rising argumentation suggests that the argument and intensity of feelings intensify towards the end of the speech. The following speech, for example, is based on this principle: “We have a lot of old people in our city... They live, as a rule, on small pensions... Pensions are always delayed... Life is constantly becoming more expensive... The state provides assistance to pensioners is not adequate... Who will help the elderly?... Many elderly people now need urgent help... We must immediately create a special service to help them.”
2. One-sided and two-sided argumentation.
One-sided the speaker’s argumentation of his position assumes that either only arguments “for” are presented, or only arguments “against” are presented. At bilateral argumentation gives the listener the opportunity to compare and choose one of several points of view, presenting opposing points of view. A variation of the method of two-sided argumentation is the so-called method of counter-argumentation, when the speaker presents his arguments as a refutation of the opponent’s arguments, having previously stated them. For example: “They say that we don’t know how to work, we’re not able to manage... Well, let’s look at the facts...” - and then this thesis is refuted.
3. Refuting and supporting argumentation.
At refuting argumentation, the speaker destroys real or possible counterarguments of a real or “invented” opponent. At the same time, positive arguments are either not given at all, or they are given very little attention during the speech. At supportive argumentation, the speaker puts forward only positive arguments and ignores counterarguments.
4. Deductive - from conclusion to arguments and inductive - from arguments to conclusion.
Argumentation from output to arguments - First the thesis is given, and then it is explained with arguments.
For example: We need to teach Russian better. Firstly, our schoolchildren's literacy is declining. Secondly, we pay little attention to improving adult literacy. Thirdly, our journalists and TV presenters do not speak Russian well. Fourth....etc.
Argumentation from arguments to conclusion- first the arguments, and then the conclusion.
For example:
Let's consider the state of the Russian language. Our schoolchildren's literacy is declining; We pay little attention to improving adult literacy; Our journalists and TV presenters do not speak Russian well, etc. Thus, we need to teach Russian better.
Different types of argumentation are effective in different audiences.
Rules for Effective Argumentation
Be emotional
The speaker’s emotionality must be obvious to the audience, but it should not dominate the very content of his speech. In this regard, the following rule should be adhered to:
Refer to facts and examples that evoke emotions
and not to the emotions themselves.
Don't overuse logical pressure
Of course, logic must be present in the argumentation, but logic must be “hidden” behind the emotional form of presentation, specific examples, humor, etc.
Address vital facts for listeners
When speaking in front of any audience, try to find and explain to the audience the reason why what you are going to tell them about should be important to them: “the neighbor’s son will suffer from drug addiction, and you will pay for the treatment,” etc.
Try to show the real benefit for your listeners from your assumptions or information - what they can do, get - down to the details: “this will help you gain health”, “I will teach you to remain calm in critical situations”, “you will learn today how to live for the minimum wage,” etc. Before your speech, you need to think carefully about what practical benefits the listeners should get from your speech, and tell them about it.
S. Johnson, one of the great satirists, once said about his contemporary: “He is not only boring in himself, but his very appearance makes those around him sad.” This statement can be considered fair to many speakers. Very often everything becomes clear after the first sentence spoken, and if it is unsuccessful, then it is impossible to attract the attention of listeners.
This is why there is a problem with the “image of the speaker.” They write and talk a lot about the “personality of the speaker”, about what is required of him, what he should be like (eruditeness, culture, etc.). But we don't mean a real person speaking in front of an audience. We are talking about constructing the image the speaker needs, about a certain impression that the speaker makes on the audience with his speech. He can act as a leader or tribune, as a person who seems to be consulting with the audience, informing the audience, as a commentator on events, etc. It's a matter of strategy.
And here, first of all, it is important to remember the types of audience attention. In the case when attention arises independently of will and consciousness, they speak of involuntary attention. Involuntary attention occurs whenever:
Involuntary attention does not tire, since it arises “by itself” and does not require nervous expenditure. However, it is not stable and easily switches to another object.
By concentrating on some object or process consciously, through an effort of will, listeners organize voluntary attention. Voluntary attention occurs when performing obligatory but uninteresting work. It is accompanied by nervous costs and tires.
If attention arose as a conscious, volitional one, but then is maintained without any effort on the part of the listeners, because they are captivated by the performance, this is a manifestation of post-voluntary attention. Post-voluntary attention does not tire and can last for a very long time (for example, ancient speakers who were listened to for 5-6 hours).
Addressing the listener is very important. Many people find it difficult to know exactly how to address their audience. If earlier the address was long and florid, with exaggerated respect, with multiple listings of those present, now the situation has changed. In recent decades, address, like speech itself, has become simpler, unvarnished, and more businesslike.
Contact with listeners is established in a frank and friendly manner, however, depending on the situation, with a predominance of trust or maintaining a distance. The address, if possible, should take into account the composition of the audience: dear colleagues, respected friends, dear colleagues. If the listeners are unknown, then honorifics are perceived as exaggeration. Treatment should be respectful, but not servile.
The rather frequently used address “dear present” is rather colorless. Based on this, we can conclude that the listeners are just “present”. The address is not necessary at the beginning of the speech; it can be used in any part of it. In particularly expressive places it serves to improve contact with listeners. During speech, the address must sometimes be varied.
The address always serves to maintain contact with the listeners, and in order to use it correctly, some more experience and a kind of subtle instinct are needed.
In addition, being in tune with the listener, with the audience, is very important. It is important not to allow either underestimation or overestimation of it. It is always easier to speak when addressing a homogeneous audience (specialists, students, colleagues, people of the same political orientation, etc.). It is much more difficult to speak in front of a heterogeneous audience.
Unfortunately, not many speakers can adapt themselves to different audiences. Some, having brilliantly mastered academic speech, do not speak a popular language, which prevents them from easily adapting and communicating freely in any audience.
So, Hamilton said: “Tune in to your listeners. Think about what attracts their attention most, what they would like to hear, what brings back pleasant memories to them, and hint at things they know.”
You should always put yourself in the position of a listener, especially if a certain opinion is expressed in the speech. It is important for the speaker not only to introduce the listener, but also to feel him.
What are these people like who are listening to me? What do they think, what do they feel, what do they know, what would they like to hear, and what should I tell them? Will what I have to say be new to the listener or am I banging on an open door?
An instructive anecdote about a respectable citizen who once wanted to read an intelligent book. And I. Kant’s book “Critique of Pure Reason” fell into his hands. Three minutes later he slammed the book shut and thought, shaking his head: “Friend Kant, I would like your worries!” The speaker may also find himself in Kant's position.
Everything that the speaker says may be good and correct, but the listener is not interested in it. The listener is always interested in facts and thoughts that relate to himself.
Usually the introduction is able to capture and captivate the listeners. But how to preserve and maintain their attention throughout the entire speech, so that, as O. Erist rightly noted, “to avoid a situation where a quarter of the listeners are busy “digesting” the content of the speech, and three-quarters are struggling with sleep”?
The most important condition for maintaining attention to a speech is its content, i.e. new. Information unknown to listeners or an original interpretation of known facts, fresh ideas, analysis of a problem.
The presentation must be accessible; it is necessary to take into account the cultural and educational level of the listeners, their life experience.
We should never forget this: many people hear exactly what they want to hear. Quintilian was right when he said: “What offends the ears cannot penetrate the soul of a person.”
What maintains attention is empathy, which occurs when a speaker passionately describes events that touch the feelings and interests of the audience. At the same time, there is an interested silence in the hall.
Listeners do not remain indifferent to trust when the speaker manages to connect the subject of speech with his own experience, his own thoughts.
Conversational speech is usually combined with a natural, relaxed manner of presentation, which has a good effect on listeners and invites joint thinking and conversation. The manner of presentation is manifested in posture, gestures, facial expression, and sound of voice. Gestures coming “from the heart” enhance the effect of speech and make it more expressive. Helps convince listeners.
Many novice speakers ask the following questions: “What to do with my hands?”, “How to make sure my hands don’t show my excitement?” But it’s better to formulate the question differently: “How can my hands help me?”
You can't keep your hands in your pockets, it shows bad manners. Besides, keeping your hands in your pockets will prevent you from learning how to use them. Use your hands to create images of your friends.
According to some researchers, a gesture in a speech carries about 40% of the information. You can agree or disagree with this statement. But try to hold your hands “at your sides” during a speech, forgetting about the gesture, and you will immediately feel the “wooden” dryness of your voice and the stiffness of your thoughts.
It is best when the posture when performing is calm, and the gestures are free and natural, and not careless and defiant. When the listener sees a figure rushing in front of him, he becomes irritated. Gestures can and should accompany the train of thought. There are no standard gestures; there are inviting, rejecting, imperative, and interrogative gestures.
Gestures are the fundamental basis of any language. Don't be afraid to use them.
Finally, the conviction and emotionality of the speaker are very important. If he is sincere, these qualities not only keep the listeners' attention on the problem, but allow him to infect those gathered with his attitude towards it. Eastern wisdom says: “You, the speaker, will not convince anyone if you don’t have in your heart what comes off your tongue.”
A moderate pace of speech is necessary, such that listeners have time to follow the speaker’s train of thought, assimilate what is said, and write down. Pauses are necessary in speech. It is during pauses that one begins to comprehend what has been said, and the opportunity to ask a question arises. It must be remembered that a person can actively listen for an average of 15 minutes. Then you need to pause or make a slight digression and bring up some interesting fact.
O. Ernst also advises using dramatization of speech: an emotional and visual depiction of events related to the topic. Experienced speakers who have an excellent command of the topic sometimes resort to provocation: they say something that causes disagreement of the audience (and therefore attracts their attention), and then, together with them, come to constructive conclusions.
The more complex the performance, the more effort the listeners have to make to concentrate their attention. A classic technique that can be used to relieve emotional tension is humor. Humor creates a natural pause for the intellect to rest.
However, a sense of humor is a natural gift. And if it is not developed, you must at least be aware of it. It becomes awkward when you see a person on the podium who is making himself laugh intensely. Safer in this sense are humorous sketches - paradoxical examples, funny stories from the lives of great people, historical anecdotes, etc. However, you also need to be able to tell them.
For example, characterizing the features of formal communication, the lecturer cited a story from the life of Mark Twain, a great lover of jokes. Once the writer was late for a dinner party. He apologized to those present and continued in a guilty tone: “I just had to run to my aunt and strangle her.” They listened to him with kind smiles and began to console him: “Well, it’s okay, there’s no need to make excuses like that.”
However, when resorting to a joke, one should not forget that at one time D.I. Pisarev said: “When laughter, playfulness and humor serve as a means, then everything is fine. When they become the goal, then mental debauchery begins.”
Constant eye contact allows you to monitor the reaction of listeners and control their attention. “The eyes not only “listen”, but also “answer,” notes R. Hoff. If there is a sense of misunderstanding or indifference in the response, it is possible to save the situation by explaining what was said or saying something that will touch the heartstrings of the listeners.
If contact is established with some part of the hall, according to the law of emotional contagion, it covers everyone. And contact cannot be established without a glance. “Your eyes should help to realize the main goal: your thoughts should reach the listeners, your eyes should connect with the eyes of the listeners, like a firm handshake between friends,” advises F. Snell.
