The Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 was a military conflict between the empire of Napoleon III and the German states led by Prussia, which was seeking European hegemony. The war, provoked by the Prussian Chancellor O. Bismarck and formally started by Napoleon III, ended in the defeat and collapse of France, as a result of which Prussia was able to transform the North German Confederation into a unified German Empire. Causes of the war
1. Rivalry between France and Prussia for hegemony (i.e. dominance) in Europe.
2. The desire of the ruling circles of France to overcome the internal crisis of the Second Empire through war.
3. Prussia’s firm intention to complete the unification of all German lands under its rule, to annex the southern German lands to the North German Confederation
Reason for war
Succession dispute in Spain
In the summer of 1870, a dispute arose between the French Emperor and Bismarck over which of their proteges would receive the Spanish crown. A relative of William I received an offer to take the Spanish throne, but the French government opposed it. Wilhelm I was peaceful, but Bismarck was not happy with this. And when the German king sent a telegram to Napoleon III, Bismarck intercepted it and corrected the text, adding offensive facts. The telegram was sent to newspapers for publication. The French took this message as an insult. And they declared war on Prussia on July 19, 1870
The first battles turned into bitter defeat for France. Prussia began an offensive war, and France was forced to defend itself. The real disaster occurred on September 1, 1870 at Sedan. The French lost the battle, and the remnants of the army took refuge in the Sedan fortress. The Germans occupied all the heights around Sedan, their artillery smashed the encircled troops. The French troops fought bravely, but were unable to get through. On September 2, 1870, Napoleon III ordered the raising of the white flag. The second empire in France ceased to exist. By the end of the year, Prussian troops managed to advance deep into France, take the Metz fortress and completely blockade Paris. A peace treaty was signed.
Results
1. On January 18, 1871, the creation of the German Empire was proclaimed at Versailles as part of the North German Confederation and the southern German states. The reunification of Germany was completed.
2. The reunification of Italy ended. France withdrew its troops from Rome, the Roman region became part of Italy. Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy.
3. The provinces of Alsace and Lorraine passed to Germany.
4. France pledged to pay an indemnity of 5 billion francs in gold.
Consequences of the war for France Napoleon lost his crown and was replaced by Adolphe Thiers. He became the first president of the Third Republic, which was proclaimed after the Paris Commune. During the war, France lost 1,835 field guns, 5,373 fortress guns, and more than 600,000 guns. The human losses were enormous: 756,414 soldiers (of which almost half a million were prisoners), 300,000 civilians killed (in total, France lost 590,000 civilians, including demographic losses). According to the Peace of Frankfurt, the former empire was inferior to Germany to Alsace and Lorraine (1,597,000 inhabitants, or 4.3% of its population). 20% of all mining and metallurgical reserves of France were concentrated in these areas.
Consequences of the war for France Even after the conclusion of peace, there were 633,346 German soldiers in France (569,875 infantry and 63,471 cavalry) with 1,742 guns. At any moment, at least 250,000 more soldiers could be called up from Germany, which would add up to give the Germans a huge numerical advantage over an already defeated enemy. The French army had only eight corps, which is approximately 400,000 soldiers. But of these, no more than 250,000 were actually in service; the rest, according to the Germans, were listed only on paper. Proclamation of the German Empire at Versailles. Bismarck (in white at the center of the picture) wanted to unite the warring German principalities to achieve the creation of a conservative, Prussian-dominated German state. He embodied this in three military victories: the Second War of Schleswig against Denmark in 1864, the Austro-Prussian-Italian War against Austria in 1866, and the Franco-Prussian War against France in 1870-1871.
Consequences of the war for Prussia On January 18, 1871, at Versailles, Bismarck and Wilhelm I announced the creation of the German Empire. Bismarck's dream came true - he created a unified German state. States that were not part of the North German Confederation - Saxony and other southern German countries - quickly joined the Empire. Austria did not become part of Germany. The five billion francs that the French paid to the Germans as indemnities provided a solid foundation for the German economy. Bismarck became Germany's second man, but this is only formally. In fact, the prime minister was practically the sole ruler, and William I was not persistent and greedy for power. Thus, a new powerful power appeared on the continent - the German Empire, whose territory was 540,857 km², population 41,058,000 people, and an army of almost 1 million soldiers.
The Encyclopedia by Richard Ernest and Trevor Nevitt Dupuis is a comprehensive reference work charting the evolution of the art of war from Antiquity to the present day. In one volume, a wealth of material is collected and systematized: a colossal volume of archival documents, rare maps, summaries of statistical data, excerpts from scientific works and detailed descriptions of the greatest battles.
For ease of use of the encyclopedia, the history of mankind is conventionally divided into twenty-two chapters, each of which is devoted to the time period from the 4th millennium BC to the end of the 20th century. The essays preceding the chapters contain information about the principles of tactics and strategy of a particular period, the characteristics of weapons, the development of military theoretical thought and outstanding military leaders of the era. The encyclopedia contains two indexes: names mentioned in the text, as well as wars and significant armed conflicts. All this will help the reader to recreate and perceive the historical canvas as a whole, understand the causes of a particular war, trace its course and evaluate the actions of the commanders.
/ / / / /Franco-Prussian War
1870–1871
Bismarck's diplomatic unification of the German states around Prussia and the creation of a broad anti-French coalition came as a surprise to Napoleon III. Prussia's attempt to place Prince Hohenzollern on the Spanish throne threatened France with a war on two fronts. Napoleon, who mistakenly considered the French army invincible, decided to speed up the inevitable (in his opinion) onset of war. Bismarck's diplomacy contributed to this hasty decision.
1870, July 15. France declares war. This is followed by the hasty mobilization of the armies of both countries. The mobilization and concentration of troops in Germany is proceeding in an organized manner, according to a clear plan, with full use of railway communications for the transfer of troops. Mobilization in France is haphazard and incomplete.
1870, July, 31. Concentration of Prussian troops and their plan of military operations. Three well-equipped German armies with a total strength of 475 thousand are concentrated on the border along the Rhine. The First Army, 85,000 strong, under the command of General Karl F. von Steinmetz, is located between Trier and Saarbrücken; the second, 210,000 strong, under the command of Prince Friedrich Karl, is stationed between Bingen and Mannheim; the third, 180,000 strong, under the command of Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm, is located between Landau and Germersheim. The armies are nominally under the command of King William I, but in fact they are commanded by General Moltke and his brilliant General Staff. Prussian intelligence learns the complete battle plan of the French army. The goal of the campaign is the defeat of the French army in a general battle followed by the capture of Paris.
1870, July, 31. Concentration of French troops and their plan of military operations. In contrast to the Prussian army, the 114,000-strong French army, consisting of eight separate corps, is deployed along the border - from Thionville to Strasbourg - and is located in echelons based on the Metz-Nancy-Belfort fortress chain. The transportation of troops is poorly organized, the supply is even worse; units are understaffed. The headquarters of Napoleon III and his incompetent minister of war, Marshal Edmond Leboeuf, are located in Metz. The only campaign plan is the popular cry “To Berlin!” French military intelligence does not exist. The command acts as if in a fog. Napoleon gives the order for a general offensive.
1870, August, 2. Battle of Saarbrücken. The firefight between units of the 1st German Army and the 2nd French Corps becomes an alarm signal for the French, notifying them that the enemy is nearby. Napoleon belatedly forms two armies: Alsatian (from three southern corps under the command of Marshal MacMahon) and Lorraine (from five northern corps under the command of Marshal Achille F. Bazin). There is no single headquarters; both commanders make decisions independently, relying on corps headquarters.
1870, August, 4. Battle of Weissenburg. Early in the morning on the Loiter River, the Crown Prince's army, advancing in four columns, takes by surprise and defeats the leading division of MacMahon's corps. The other two French corps had not yet arrived; During the day one division approaches. After a fierce battle with superior enemy forces, French losses amount to 1,600 killed and wounded and 700 prisoners; German losses -1550. McMahon retreats and concentrates troops on a forested plateau, turning his position towards the river.
1870, August, 6. Battle of Froeschwiller (Wörth). McMahon's right flank repels German reconnaissance in battle. The Crown Prince regroups, strikes simultaneously on both flanks of MacMahon and concentrates his main forces against the enemy’s right flank, sending 150 cannons at him. The French cavalry launches several suicidal counterattacks, but cannot stop the advance. Under the cover of reserve artillery, McMahon retreats to Froeschwiller. Here he holds out until dark, and then retreats unhindered to Chalons-on-Marne (August, 7-14). The German army of 125,000 with 312 guns loses a total of 8,200 killed and wounded and 1,373 missing. The French 46.5 thousand with 119 guns loses 10,760 killed and wounded and 6,200 prisoners. The defense in the Vosges Mountains region has been broken, the path to Paris is open. The Crown Prince's army methodically advances towards the Meuse (Meuse) River. The tactical pattern of operations is becoming clearer. The French Chassepot rifles are superior to the Prussian needle muskets in accuracy and quantity of fire, but thanks to the erroneous replacement of guns with mitrailleuses (machine guns), which make up about one-quarter of all French artillery, the latter is significantly inferior to the Prussian.
1870, August, 6. Battle of Spichern. The 1st and 2nd German armies advance towards Lorraine. Bazaine's army is dispersed into three parts that have no connection with each other. The French Second Corps of General Charles Auguste Frossard, repelling the attacks of Steinmetz and the corps of the army of Friedrich-Karl, holds the height of Spichern (southeast of Saarbrücken) for a whole day, until there is a threat of encirclement on both flanks. There is no help from Bazin. The French 30,000-strong corps loses 1,982 people killed and wounded, 1,096 missing. The German 45,000-strong corps loses 4,491 killed and wounded and 372 missing. The German army, drained of blood by losses, does not pursue the retreating French.
1870, August, 6-15. German offensive. Moltke gives the order to the 3rd Army to pursue the retreating MacMahon, and he himself, with the 1st and 2nd Armies, rushes after Bazin on the most extensive section of the front. The mobility of the German vanguard does not give the French any respite. The Prussians wedge themselves between the two French armies and threaten to cut off Bazaine.
1870, August 12. Napoleon resigns as commander-in-chief. Shocked by the defeats of the French army, Napoleon renounces the post of commander-in-chief and goes to the Verdun fortress. Leboeuf is removed and his place is taken by General Charles G.M. Cousin-Montauban, Count of Palicao. Bazaine, having taken command of the reorganized Army of the Rhine, retreats to the fortress of Metz, while MacMahon regroups his troops at Chalons.
1870, August 15. Battle of Borin. The Prussian First Army forces Bazaine to retreat across the Moselle River. Bazin hopes to reach Verdun and join MacMahon's army. But the German Second Army cuts off his path to retreat by crossing the river at Pont-à-Mousson. Hoping to break through, Bazaine concentrates troops between Orne and the Moselle, turning south and leaving Metz on his left flank.
Mitrailleuse
1870, August, 16. Battles of Mar-la-Tour, Vionville and Resonville. At dawn, Frederick Charles, moving north from Verdun to Metz, encounters French troops. His lead corps attacks; the rest rush forward at the sound of cannonade. The attack of the French cavalry was repulsed with heavy losses for the latter. The Germans attack in their favorite way: they deliver a concentrated strike, then echelon after echelon introduce new units into the battle until the climax of the battle. Small cavalry skirmishes develop into a grand battle, and then into hand-to-hand combat, capturing infantry positions. The battle continues until complete exhaustion on both sides. Ultimately, Friedrich-Karl goes on the attack along the entire front and pushes the enemy back to Resonville. A series of battles merges into one protracted battle, the most difficult of the entire war. German losses amount to 17 thousand, French - 16 thousand. The next day, Bazaine, having lost hope of a breakthrough, retreats to Metz, deploys an army of 115 thousand along the flank and takes a new position 10 km long with a front to the west, to the mountain range between the Moselle and Orna. The main forces of German troops numbering 200 thousand people, finding themselves between Bazaine's army and Paris, begin an offensive, leaving one reinforced corps east of Metz.
1870, August, 18. Battle of Gravelotte - Saint-Privat. Moltke, personally participating in the operation, attacks Bazaine, throwing the main forces of his Second Army against the enemy’s left flank. The key point of the battle is the fortified village of Saint-Privat-la-Montaigne. Friedrich-Karl sends the Prussian Guard to storm the village (which is defended by the Sixth Corps of Marshal Canrobert). From early morning until dusk, Canrobert's 23,000-strong corps heroically repelled the onslaught of a 100,000-strong German army. Meanwhile, Bazin does not respond in any way to his requests to send reinforcements. Then a Saxon corps enters Roncourt (north of Saint-Privat), encircles the French flank and threatens their rear. After the battle for each village house, Canrober with the remnants of the corps retreats to Metz. Meanwhile, another battle is being fought on the German right flank. Two German corps are stretched out, marching along the road leading east from Gravelotte. Entering the gorge, they fall into a French trap. Attempts to break through are unsuccessful; panic begins. Disorderly crowds of soldiers retreat west through Gravelotte. The brilliant French counterattack was stopped only thanks to the timely arrival of the artillery of Prince Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen and the personal leadership of Moltke, who brought up fresh troops and prevented the complete defeat of the retreating German army. At the end of the night, Moltke receives a message about the victory at Saint-Privat. If Bazin had launched a counterattack in time, being in his previous disposition, he would have had the opportunity to break through the Prussian lines. However, he continues to be inactive, having completely lost contact with the corps commanders. Moltke, who was waiting for a French counterattack, which never took place, surrounds the enemy positions along the entire perimeter.
1870, August, 21–18. McMahon's offensive. Meanwhile, MacMahon receives a categorical order from the government to march from Chalons to the aid of Bazaine with an army of 120,000 and 393 guns. All his actions are widely covered by the French press. Emperor Napoleon III himself is at his headquarters. McMahon unwisely chooses the northern route, which then requires turning east. Moltke accepts the challenge. While the German 1st Army and part of the 2nd under the command of Friedrich-Karl besiege Metz, the rest of the 2nd Army, called the Möz, under the command of the Saxon Crown Prince Albert, moves west to join the 3rd Army of Friedrich-Wilhelm , which quickly crosses the Argonne Forest, blocking McMahon's path.
1870, August, 29–31. Battles on the Meuse. MacMahon moves part of his army across the Meuse at Douzy. The Prussian Meuse army, advancing on both banks of the river, after fierce battles near Noir (August 29) and Beaumont (August 30), pushes the French north to Sedan. Another battle at Bazeya (August 31), in which MacMahon was wounded, forces the French into a bend in the river near Sedan. And this time the Prussians wedge themselves between the French army and Sedan. The Crown Prince, arriving from the southeast through Vadlincourt and Donchery on the left bank of the Meuse, crosses the river along pontoon bridges and moves deep into the plain north of Sedan, completing the flanking of the French army. Meanwhile, Frederick Charles's army repels Bazaine's half-hearted attempts to break out of Metz (August 31).
1870, September, 1. Battle of Sedan. General Auguste Ducrot, who took command instead of MacMahon, finds himself surrounded by Moltke's 200,000-strong army, pushing him from the south, west and east; Ducrot's rear is turned towards the Belgian border. The French cavalry, which attempted a breakthrough, was scattered by Prussian infantry fire; Meanwhile, 426 German guns, located in a semicircle on the heights in the vicinity of Sedan, bombarded the French positions throughout the day. The German cavalry attack was repulsed by French machine gun fire (mitrailleuse). Having failed in an attempt to break through to the northeast, Ducrot tried to attack south in the afternoon, but was unsuccessful. By five o'clock in the afternoon it's all over; The French army accumulates in the city and fortress under heavy enemy fire. General Emmanuel F. de Wimpffen, who took command from Ducrot, tries to convince Napoleon to personally lead the final attack, but he refuses to sacrifice soldiers, comes out with a white flag and surrenders to the King of Prussia as a private citizen. Then Wimpffen with the remnants of the army (83 thousand soldiers and 449 guns) capitulates. French losses amount to 17 thousand, German losses -9 thousand.
1870, September. German attack on Paris. It seemed that the war was over. Half of the French army is captured, the rest are blocked in Metz. The last stronghold of the French army are the fortresses located along the eastern border, of which the most important are Strasbourg, Verdun and Belfort. The German army is constantly replenished with reserves. While the 1st and 2nd armies are tightening the iron ring around Bazaine in Metz, the 3rd and Meuse armies are moving towards Paris. However, an unprecedented patriotic upsurge is taking place in France.
1870, September, 4. Third Republic. A popular uprising breaks out in Paris, overthrowing the empire. A provisional government is formed, the ideological leader of which is Leon Gambetta, and the president and military governor of Paris is General Louis Jules Trochu. Trochu strengthens Paris and hastily recruits an army of 120,000 (from veterans, reservists and 20,000 marines), an 80,000-strong corps of the so-called flying guard (from young people under 30) and a 300,000-strong national guard (extremely excitable and anarchic). tuned crowd of people from 30 to 50 years old).
1870, September 19. Beginning of the siege of Paris. Moltke is not going to destroy his soldiers by sending them to storm two belts of strong fortifications. The Germans carefully build their fortifications around the city. King William of Prussia moves his headquarters to Versailles. Moltke is about to starve out the giant city, but to his amazement he discovers that his communication lines are constantly being attacked franc-tieurs(partisans), and a new French army is formed in the Loire Valley. Gambetta, who fled the capital in a hot air balloon (the only means of communication with the outside world), organizes a nationwide resistance centered in Tours (October 11), where the provisional government functions. Moltke is torn apart, commanding two sieges, field operations and counter-partisan warfare along an entire line of communications that greatly reduces the effectiveness of the German war machine.
Krupp gun
1870, October 27. Fall of Metz. Bazaine's 173,000-strong French army capitulates after a 54-day siege due to the commander's indecisiveness and hunger rather than military action. After the end of the war, Bazin is tried by a tribunal, found guilty of treason and imprisoned.
1870, October – December. French initiative. Moltke immediately sent the veterans freed after the siege of Metz into a large-scale campaign against the untrained French army in the valley of the Loire and Sarthe rivers, which had made several bold but unsuccessful attempts to break through to besieged Paris. Fighting continues throughout the winter; German communications are subject to constant attacks by partisans.
1870, October – December. Military operations around Paris. Despite the famine in besieged Paris, Trochu's troops make forays from time to time. The defense of Paris is complicated by the mutiny of the National Guard soldiers (October 31). Two major forays to break the siege (November, 29–30 and December, 21) begin successfully, but end in nothing.
1870, November, 9. Battle of Kulmier. The victory of French troops over the Bavarian corps forces the Germans to leave Orleans, but the further French offensive stalls after the introduction of Prussian reserves.
1870, December, 2–4. Battle of Orleans. A two-day fierce battle between the French Army of the Loire under the command of General Louis J.B. d'Oreille de Paladin and the army of Frederick Charles ends with the victory of the Prussians and their recapture of Orleans. Meanwhile, General Charles D.S. Bourbaki hurries east to the besieged Belfort, and General Antoine F.A. Chanzi and the remnants of the Loire army are engaged in protracted battles with significantly superior enemy forces.
1871, January. Campaign in the North. General Louis L.C. Faedherbe holds back German attempts to pacify Northern France at the Battle of Alluey (December 23). Then, in the long battle of Beaupaume (January, 2–3), he defeats the corps of General August Karl von Goeben, but von Goeben takes revenge in the battle of Saint-Quentin (January, 19). Faderbe retreats in an organized manner and defeats the pursuing vanguard. He quickly regroups his troops and prepares for a new offensive. This worries the German command, already taken by surprise by the unexpected successes of the resistance in remote provinces.
1871, January, 10–12. Battle of Le Mans. In the Loire Valley, the Germans repulse a desperate attempt to attack from Chanzy. The unreliability of the troops forces Chanzi to retreat to the west, but not to lose the intention of launching a new offensive on the Loire.
1871, January, 15–17. Battle of Belfort. Far to the east, Belfort remains the last strong French fortress with a garrison still holding out. Bourbaki with a completely unprepared 150,000-strong army advances on the 60,000-strong corps of General Karl Wilhelm F.A.L. Werder to distract him from the siege of Belfort and force him to defend. He attacks Werder positions on the Lisena River, within cannon range of the fortress. Due to Bourbaki's mediocrity and the incompetence of his assistant Giuseppe Garibaldi (this time fighting for French independence), the French are defeated after a three-day fierce battle. The Germans lose 1,900 soldiers, the French more than 6 thousand. Bourbaki makes an unsuccessful suicide attempt, is removed from command and replaced by General Justin Clenchan. With the arrival of the German reserve army under the command of General Edwin von Manteuffel, Clenchamp, whose rear faces the Swiss border, finds himself sandwiched between two armies. With an army of 83,000, he crosses the Swiss border to Pontarlier, where he receives a warm welcome (February, 1).
1871, January 26. Truce in Paris. The third and final attempt by the Paris garrison to break the siege ends in complete defeat when the National Guard begins treacherously shooting their comrades in the back (January 19). The hopes of the defenders of Paris for liberation are crumbling, people are starving. At Trochu's suggestion, a truce is concluded.
1871, January 28. Versailles Convention; capitulation of Paris. Regular units of the Paris garrison and the Flying Guard are declared prisoners of war; the forts in the vicinity of Paris are occupied by the Prussians. At the request of the French (as it turns out later, unreasonable), the terms of the peace agreement do not include the disarmament of the national guard, which in theory should perform police functions and maintain order in the city. The winners enter Paris in triumph (March 1).
1871, January – February. Undefeated Belfort. The commandant of the fortress, Colonel Pierre M. P. A. Danfer-Rochereau, has held the defense since November 3, 1870. Being a military engineer, he served in the garrison of this ancient fortress for six years. Using existing structures, he strengthens the outer line of defense and successfully defends Belfort with a garrison of 17,600, mainly consisting of flying and national guards. The Germans manage to break through the outer line of fortifications only at the end of January, but at the same time they find themselves under fire from the citadel batteries and advance extremely slowly. Danfert-Rochereau surrenders the fortress only by categorical order of the French General Assembly in Bordeaux (February 15). The garrison leaves with military honors - with weapons, artillery and banners. During the 105 days of the siege, the French lose 4,800 people (of which 336 were civilians killed during shelling). German losses amount to 2 thousand. The defense of Belfort becomes a heroic event in the history of the French army.
1871, May, 10. Peace of Frankfurt. France gives Alsace and North-East Lorraine to Germany, and also pays an indemnity of 5 billion francs (a billion dollars). The German occupation authorities remain in France until the indemnity is paid.
After Prussia's convincing victory over Austria in the War of 1866 and the subsequent creation of the North German Confederation under the hegemony of the Prussian King Wilhelm I, the unification of the German state was not completed, and the South German states remained outside the union created by Prussia.
On the path to the final unification of Germany stood the reactionary government of France headed by Napoleon III, because. a single, powerful German state in central Europe threatened France's hegemony on the continent.
Despite the defeat of Austria by the Prussian army four years earlier, the French generals and Emperor Napoleon III himself were skeptical of the Prussian military machine. The war with Prussia, which was rapidly gaining influence in Europe, allowed Napoleon III to solve two problems - to weaken Prussia and prevent the further unification of Germany, on the one hand, and, secondly, to stop the growth of the revolutionary movement in France, directed against the regime of the Second Empire.
In turn, the de facto ruler of Prussia and the North German Confederation, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, in every possible way provoked France into war. He hoped, as a result of rapid and successful military action, to complete the unification of Germany and reunite with the South German states, which is considered by historians as the beginning of a just and progressive war for the unification of a single German people. However, the Prussian government's plan to seize the mineral-rich French territories of Alsace and Lorraine must be seen as part of Prussia's aggressive and aggressive policy.
So, both sides of the conflict were looking for a reason for war, which did not take long to arrive. The offer by the new Spanish government after the revolution of 1868 of the vacant Spanish throne to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, the head of the senior Catholic branch of the German Brandenburg royal dynasty, who was a relative of the Prussian King William I, caused great indignation of the French government. At first, in the negotiations for the Spanish throne with King William I, diplomatic success accompanied Napoleon III's ambassador to Prussia, Benedetti. However, the intrigue masterfully carried out by Chancellor Bismarck - the publication in the German press of the so-called "Ems dispatch" - caused a storm of indignation in France, and on July 19, 1870, the North German Reichstag was officially informed of France's declaration of war on Prussia, which is what Bismarck sought - to force France to formally start a war first.
All states of the North German Confederation and Southern Germany took the side of Prussia. France found itself without allies, which was greatly facilitated by the Russian position of neutrality on the one hand, and the incompetent policy of Napoleon III in relations with the British Empire and Italy, on the other. Austria, thirsting for revenge for the humiliating defeat in the war of 1866, did not dare to open a second front against Prussia until the last moment and never began hostilities.
The Prussian army was superior to the French in many respects - in numbers, combat training, steel artillery from the Krupp factories in Germany against the bronze guns of the French. Germany's well-branched railway network made it possible to quickly mobilize and transfer German troops to the front line, which the French could not afford. The superiority of the French small arms - the Chassepot rifle of the 1866 model - over the Prussian Dreyse rifle of the 1849 model, could in no way change the course of hostilities in favor of the French army.
The French government's plan was to make a major attack in the Bavarian Palatinate, intending to advance along the border of the North German Confederation and thus disconnect it from Southern Germany. Napoleon III also believed that after the first successes of the French army, Austria and Italy would enter into an alliance with him and begin military operations against Prussia.
The outstanding Prussian military leader, Field Marshal Helmuth Moltke the Elder, who, along with Chancellor Otto von Bismarck and Field Marshal Albrecht von Roon, should be considered one of the founders of the united German state, developed a strategic plan providing for a rapid offensive in the Alsace and Lorraine directions, the defeat of the main enemy forces in a general battle and the subsequent capture of Paris. Moltke's plan also took into account the possibility of military action against Austria if the latter entered the war against Prussia on the side of France.
Contrary to French plans, the mobilization of the army was extremely slow and unsatisfactory, which was generally facilitated by the confusion that reigned within the Second Empire. By August 1870, French troops managed to concentrate only 220 thousand people with 800 guns at the borders in Lorraine and Alsace. The troops were consolidated into one Army of the Rhine under the command of Emperor Napoleon III himself.
In contrast to France, Prussia very quickly mobilized its armed forces and, by August 1870, its three armies, numbering over 400 thousand people with 1600 modern guns, entered the Bavarian Palatinate and southwestern Prussia in full combat readiness. In addition to the Prussians, the 3rd Army also included South German troops. The commander-in-chief of the united German army was the chief of the general staff, Field Marshal Moltke the elder.
On August 2, the French corps went on the offensive and drove the Prussian garrison out of Saarbrücken, but already on August 4, the 3rd Prussian Army launched an offensive in the direction of Alsace and defeated the French division near Weissenburg.
After this first defeat, Napoleon III relinquished supreme command of the French armed forces and the Army of the Rhine was divided into two armies: the 1st (1st, 5th and 7th Corps, located in Alsace) under the command of Marshal MacMahon and the 2nd Yu (2nd, 3rd and 4th corps, located in Lorraine) under the command of Marshal Bazin.
The Prussian 3rd Army invaded Alsace and MacMahon was forced to withdraw to Chalons-sur-Marne. In the 20th of August, a new French group was formed - the Chalon Army under the command of McMahon. Napoleon III intended to send this army towards Paris, since the German 3rd Army had already begun to develop an offensive in the direction of the French capital.
On August 6, the 1st and 2nd Prussian armies went on the offensive against Bazin's army in Lorraine. The French retreated to the fortified fortress of Metz, and, after defeat in the battles of Gravolta and Saint-Privat, Marshal Bazin decided to lock himself in the fortress. The Germans regrouped their forces and formed the 4th Meuse Army, which was supposed to move towards Paris and at the same time, together with the 3rd Prussian Army, act against the French Chalon Army of Marshal McMahon.
The French government made the wrong decision and, instead of providing protection to Paris, sent the Army of Chalons to help the besieged troops of Bazaine.
On September 1, 1870, the Chalon army was surrounded by German troops near the weakly fortified Sedan fortress and cut off from Metz; The 3rd Prussian Army cut off the retreat path of McMahon's group to the southwest towards Reims. After a bloody battle, Prussian troops occupied the commanding heights above Sedan and began a merciless artillery bombardment of the French. Having suffered colossal losses during the shelling carried out by Prussian troops, the French Army of Chalons was forced to raise the white flag and begin negotiations on surrender. Under the terms of surrender, the entire Chalon army, together with Emperor Napoleon III, who was with it, surrendered. As a result of the battle of Sedan, French troops lost about 17 thousand people killed and wounded, as well as over 100 thousand prisoners. Prussian losses amounted to about 9 thousand people killed and wounded. On September 4, the 3rd and 4th Prussian armies continued their attack on Paris.
After the defeat of the French army near Sedan, a coup took place in Paris, as a result of which the government of Napoleon III was overthrown and the Third Republic was proclaimed. The new French government proclaimed itself the Government of National Defense and began to form new armies in the provinces. Military men, sailors and volunteers flocked to Paris from all over France. By September 17, there were about 80 thousand regular troops and more than 300 thousand irregular troops in Paris. On September 17, the Prussian armies approached Paris and blocked it.
On October 27, 1870, the French army of Marshal Bazin, besieged in Metz, capitulated to Prussian troops. Many historians consider Bazin a traitor, because. The 2nd French Army was quite large and quite combat-ready. One way or another, Bazaine’s capitulation made it possible for the Prussian command to send the 1st Army to the north, and the 2nd to the Loire.
On December 4, the approaching 2nd Prussian Army managed to push back the newly formed French Loire Army across the Loire River and capture Orleans.
Despite the fact that the French people heroically defended their country, the Government of National Defense was unable to organize a worthy rebuff to the German troops. The uprising that arose on October 31, 1870 in Paris against the government, which was pursuing a mediocre policy for the defense of France, was brutally suppressed by regular units of the French National Guard.
On January 26, 1871, the French government signed an agreement on the surrender of Paris, and on the 28th it concluded a truce with the enemy.
The truce of January 28 did not extend to the eastern departments of France, where it was supposed to come into force after agreement was reached on the demarcation line between the warring parties in these areas.
The Loire army was pushed back by the Prussians to Switzerland, where it was forced to lay down its arms. Hero of Italy Giuseppe Garibaldi fought on the side of the French and commanded a corps, and subsequently the international volunteer Army of the Vosges, but was unable to provide support to the French Army of the Loire.
On February 18, 1871, the French fortress of Belfort capitulated, and the last hostilities in France ended.
The National Assembly appointed the French statesman Louis Adolphe Thiers as head of the new government (later president of the republic). Following this, on March 18, 1871, a rebellion broke out in Paris, and power in the capital passed to the Paris Commune. A bloody civil war began between the Commune and Thiers' supporters.
On May 10, 1871 in Frankfurt, the Thiers government was forced to sign a peace treaty with Germany under very difficult conditions for France. Alsace and Eastern Lorraine went to Germany, and France was obliged to pay a huge indemnity of 5 billion francs.
The most important consequence of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 was the completion of the unification of Germany under Prussian hegemony. On January 18, King William I of Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor.
France's military losses (killed, from wounds, from disease, in captivity) amounted to over 140 thousand people. The losses of Prussia and the allies were about 50 thousand people. The Frankfurt Peace of 1871, humiliating and difficult for France, was a bleeding wound for the French Republic for a long time. The outbreak of the First World War of 1914–1918 was largely due to the consequences of the Franco-Prussian War and the catastrophic defeat of France in this war.
Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871- a military conflict between the empire of Napoleon III and the German states led by Prussia, which was seeking European hegemony. The war, provoked by the Prussian Chancellor O. Bismarck and formally started by Napoleon III, ended in the defeat and collapse of France, as a result of which Prussia was able to transform the North German Confederation into a unified German Empire.
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Already on July 28, at the military council in Metz, it became clear that the French army was completely unprepared; but public opinion demanded offensive action, and the 2nd Corps of General Frossard was moved to Saarbrücken, where the first, inconclusive battle with the German detachment occupying this city ensued (August 2).
Meanwhile, on August 3, the transportation of German troops to the border was completed, and the next day the 3rd Army of the Crown Prince of Prussia invaded Alsace and defeated the French division of General Douai, located near Weissenburg.
Following this, Napoleon, abandoning overall command of the troops and leaving only the Guard and the 6th Corps at his disposal, entrusted the defense of Alsace to three corps (1st, 5th and 7th) under the command of MacMahon, and the troops those who were near Metz, subordinated them to Marshal Bazin.
2 days after the Battle of Weissenburg, MacMahon’s corps, located at Werth, was again attacked by the Prussian crown prince, completely defeated and retreated to Chalons. At the same time (August 6), the French suffered another setback: Frossard's 2nd Corps, which occupied a strong position on the heights of Spichern-Forbach, south of Saarbrücken, was attacked by units of the 1st and 2nd German armies of Steinmetz and Prince Friedrich. Karl and after a stubborn battle was forced to retreat.
The Germans, however, could not immediately take advantage of this success, since the strategic deployment of their 2nd Army on the Saar River was not yet completed; Only the patrols of their cavalry already appeared on the left bank of the Moselle on August 9. Marshal Bazaine, meanwhile, pulled his troops to Metz, where units of the 6th Corps from near Chalon began to approach. On August 11, the Germans moved forward; On August 13, their 1st Army came across French troops located around Metz; On August 14, a battle took place at Colombey-Noilly, and on the night of August 15, the French left for the Moselle. Bazaine decided to retreat westward, to Verdun, but at the same time made a major mistake by leading his entire army (up to 170 thousand) along one road, while he had five at his disposal. Meanwhile, the 2nd German Army, which had captured the crossings on the Moselle, above Metz, was already moving to the left bank of the river; the 5th Cavalry Division of General Reinbabena came across French troops moving towards Verdun and started a battle with them.
On the morning of August 16, Emperor Napoleon, who was with Bazaine's army, left for Chalons; on the same day, French troops were attacked at Mars-la-Touré and Vionville by two corps of the 2nd German Army. This battle, indecisive in a tactical sense, was an important victory for the Germans in a strategic sense: they intercepted Bazaine’s direct route of retreat to Verdun and further to Paris and threatened the northern road to Doncourt. Instead of taking advantage of the temporary superiority of his forces to attack the enemy the next day, on August 17 Bazaine withdrew his troops to an impregnable, in his opinion, position near Metz. Meanwhile, the 1st and 2nd German armies (over 250 thousand) quickly converged on Mars-la-Tour; A special corps was sent to act against Tul. The location of Bazaine's troops became clear to the Germans only around noon on August 18th. On this day, in the morning they moved in a northerly direction; a stubborn battle took place at Saint-Privat and Gravelotte; the French right wing was shot down, their last route of retreat was intercepted.
The next day, a reorganization of the German military forces was carried out: from the Guard, the 12th and 4th corps of the 2nd Army, with the 5th and 6th cavalry divisions, the 4th Army was formed - the Meuse, entrusted to the command of the Crown Prince of Saxony. This army, together with the 3rd (total strength up to 245 thousand), was ordered to advance towards Paris.
On the French side, meanwhile, a new army (about 140 thousand) was formed at Chalons, under the command of MacMahon. The emperor himself arrived to this army. At first it was decided to take her to Paris, but public opinion rebelled against this, demanding Bazin’s revenue, and, at the insistence of the new Minister of War Cousin de Montauban (Count Palicao), MacMahon decided to carry out such a risky operation. On August 23, his army moved to the Meuse River. This movement was delayed by food difficulties, and meanwhile, already on August 25, accurate information about it was received at the German headquarters. The 3rd and 4th German armies moved in a northerly direction, across MacMahon, and managed to warn the French at the crossings at Dena And Wall. Repeated clashes with German troops overtaking him (battles at Buzancy, Noir, Beaumont) pointed out to McMahon the danger that threatened him; he still had the opportunity to withdraw his army to Maizières, but instead led it to the fortress of Sedan, which did not at all represent a reliable stronghold and was surrounded on all sides by dominant heights. The result was the Sedan disaster that followed on September 1, which ended with the capture of the entire French army of MacMahon, along with Emperor Napoleon III.
Of the entire active French army, only the 13th Corps of General Vinois remained free, which was sent by the Minister of War to reinforce MacMahon and had already reached Mezières, but, having learned on the evening of September 1 about what had happened at Sedan, it immediately began to retreat to Paris, pursued by the 6th German Corps. Official news of the defeat at Sedan was received in the capital of France on September 3, and the next day there, as a result of a massive uprising of the Parisians, Napoleon was declared deposed, and a Government of National Defense under the chairmanship of General Trochu, General Le Flot was appointed Minister of War. The Government of National Defense offered peace to Germany, but due to the excessive demands of the victorious enemy, the agreement did not take place.
The Germans brought about 700 thousand people into France during September and October; The French, apart from Bazin’s army locked in Metz, had only relatively insignificant reliable forces left. Together with Vinoy's corps, which managed to retreat to Paris, up to 150 thousand people could be counted in the city, a significant part of which were of very dubious dignity; about 50 thousand were in various depots and marching regiments; in addition, there were up to 500 thousand people aged 20-40 years, who served as a mobilization resource for the formation of new corps. This improvised army, in the fight against regular troops, inspired by the brilliant victories they had won, had little chance of success. However, the Government of National Defense decided to continue the fight to the end. The German army spread across the north-east of France, capturing secondary fortresses that were still in the hands of the French. The 3rd and 4th armies, having separated two corps to escort the Sedan prisoners, moved towards Paris and completed its encirclement from September 17 to 19.
On January 18, 1871, at Versailles, Bismarck and Wilhelm I announced the reunification of Germany. Bismarck's dream came true - he created a unified German state. The Empire was quickly joined by states that were not part of the North German Confederation - Bavaria and other southern German states. Austria did not become part of the newly unified Germany. The five billion francs that the French paid to the Germans as indemnities became a solid foundation for the German economy. Bismarck became Germany's second man, but this is only formally. In fact, the prime minister was practically the sole ruler, and William I was not persistent and greedy for power.
Thus, a new powerful power appeared on the continent - the German Empire, whose territory was 540,857 km², population 41,058,000 people, and an army of almost 1 million soldiers.
| Countries | Population 1870 | Number of troops | Killed (all reasons) | Wounded | Died from disease | Civilians killed |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| North German Confederation | 32 914 800 | 1 451 992 | 32 634 | 89 732 | 12 147 | 200 000 |
| Bavaria | 4 863 000 | 55 500 | 5600 | |||
| Württemberg | 1 819 000 | 16 500 | 976 | |||
| Baden | 1 462 000 | 13 500 | 956 | |||
| Total allies | 41 058 800 | 1 451 992 | 40 166 | 200 000 | ||
| France | 36 870 000 | 2 067 366 | 78 000 | 143 000 | 61 000 | 590 000 |
| Total participating troops | 77 928 800 | 3 519 358 | 118 166 | 790 000 |
Information taken from the following books:
Russia, after its defeat in the Crimean War and the signing of the unfavorable Paris Peace Treaty in 1856, lost its rights in the Black Sea. Under the terms of the treaty, it was prohibited from having and building a fleet in the Black Sea. Russia, left in complete diplomatic isolation, had no choice but to sign this treaty. France, Great Britain and the Ottoman Empire took a side hostile to Russia in the international arena. Austria was considered an ally of Russia, but after the Crimean War it became clear that Emperor Franz Joseph I was not going to support Russia.
Only Germany remained, which had long been looking for friendship with St. Petersburg. Otto von Bismarck understood perfectly well that without an alliance with Russia he would not be able to achieve his foreign policy goals. He sought to establish friendly relations with St. Petersburg, which, in turn, was also looking for new allies. Prussia, having secured the support of the Russian Empire, began war after war in Europe. In return, she promised Russia support for revising the Paris Peace of 1856. During the Danish War of 1864, the Prussian fleet strengthened in the Baltic Sea, but Russia did not react to this. During the German War of 1866, Russia also took a neutral position.
Russia did not intervene in the Franco-Prussian war either. Before the war, Napoleon III did not seek friendship and alliance with Russia. After the outbreak of hostilities, Adolphe Thiers was sent to St. Petersburg, who asked for Russian intervention in the war with Prussia.
He sought to unite all German lands under his rule, and the French emperor Napoleon III tried to prevent this, not wanting to see another strong state in Europe, and even one neighboring France.
Reasons and reason for war
All that remained for the Prussian Chancellor to do to create a united Germany was to annex the South German states. But Bismarck was not going to limit himself to this: the Prussians were attracted by the French provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, rich in coal and iron ore, which were so necessary for German industrialists.
Thus, the reasons for the Franco-Prussian war were obvious, all that remained was to find a reason. Both sides actively searched for him, and he was soon found. In July 1870, the Spanish government, preoccupied with finding a candidate for the royal throne, which was left without an owner after the next revolution, turned to the relative of the Prussian king, Prince Leopold. Napoleon III, who did not want to see another crowned representative next door to France, began to negotiate with Prussia. The French ambassador managed to achieve success in this. But, as it turned out later, a provocation was hidden here. Bismarck composed a telegram to the French emperor about Prussia’s renunciation of the Spanish throne in a rather offensive tone for the French, and even published it in newspapers. The result was predictable - the enraged Napoleon III declared war on Prussia.
Balance of power
The international situation in which the Franco-Prussian War began was more favorable for Prussia than for France. The states that were part of the French side took the side of Bismarck, but the French emperor was left without allies. Russia maintained a neutral position; diplomatic relations with Britain and Italy were hopelessly damaged thanks to the incompetent policies of Napoleon III. The only state that could enter the war on his side was Austria, but the Austrian government, which had recently been defeated in the war with Prussia, did not dare to get involved in a new battle with its recent enemy.
From the very first days, the Franco-Prussian war revealed the weaknesses of the French army. Firstly, its numbers were seriously inferior to the enemy - 570 thousand soldiers versus 1 million for the North German Confederation. The weapons were also worse. The only thing the French could be proud of was their faster rate of fire. But the most important thing was the lack of a clear plan of military action. It was compiled hastily, and much of it was unrealistic: both the timing of mobilization and the calculations for a split between the allies.
As for Prussia, the Franco-Prussian war, of course, did not take either the king or the chancellor by surprise. Its army was distinguished by discipline and excellent weapons, and was created on the basis of universal conscription. The dense network of railways in Germany made it possible to quickly transfer military units to the right place. And, of course, the Prussian command had a clear plan of action, developed long before the war.
Hostilities
In August 1870, the offensive began. The French corps were defeated one after another. On September 1, a battle began near the Sedan fortress, where Napoleon III was located. The French command was unable to avoid encirclement, and on top of that, the army suffered huge losses from cross-fire. As a result, the very next day Napoleon III was forced to surrender. Having captured 84 thousand people, the Prussians moved towards the French capital.
The news of the defeat at Sedan sparked an uprising in Paris. Already on September 4, a Republic was proclaimed in France. The new government began to form new armies. Thousands of volunteers took up arms, but the new authorities were unable to organize the country’s defense from the enemy. On October 27, Marshal Bazin’s huge army, numbering almost 200 thousand people, capitulated. According to historians, the marshal could well have repelled the Prussians, but chose to surrender.
On other fronts, Bismarck was also lucky. As a result, on January 28, 1871, a truce was signed in Versailles. The Franco-Prussian War is over. There, in the palace of the French kings, it was proclaimed. Half a century will pass, and in the same hall the Germans will sign, after Germany is defeated in the First World War. But so far this was far from happening: in May of the same year, the parties signed a peace treaty, according to which France not only lost Alsace and Lorraine, but also a tidy sum of 5 billion francs. Thus, the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871. not only united Germany, but also significantly weakened France economically.
